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NUCLEAR FAMILY 19769
THE MAGICALALPHABET
THIS IS THE SCENE OF THE SCENE UNSEEN THE UNSEEN SEEN OF THE SCENE UNSEEN THIS IS THE SCENE
THE DIVINE COMEDY OF DANTE ALIGHIERI (1265-1321) THE FLORENTINE CANTICA I HELL (L'INFERNO) INTRODUCTION Page 9 "Midway this way of life we're bound upon I woke to find myself in a dark wood, Where the right road was wholly lost and gone."
THE DIVINE COMEDY OF DANTE ALIGHIERI (1265-1321) THE FLORENTINE CANTICA I HELL (L'INFERNO) INTRODUCTION Page 9 "Power failed high fantasy here; yet, swift to move Even as a wheel moves equal, free from jars, Already my heart and will were wheeled by love, The Love that moves the sun and other stars."
THE FAR YONDER SCRIBE AND OFT TIMES SHADOWED SUBSTANCES WATCHED IN FINE AMAZE THE ZED ALIZ ZED IN SWIFT REPEAT SCATTER STAR DUST AMONGST THE LETTERS OF THEIR PROGRESS AT THE THROW OF THE NINTH NUMBER WHEN IN CONJUNCTION SET THE FAR YONDER SCRIBE MADE RECORD OF THEIR FALL
MATHEMATICS A LANGUAGE OF LETTERS AND NUMBERS
MATHEMATICS A LANGUAGE OF LETTER AND NUMBER
A MAZE IN ZAZAZA ENTERS AZAZAZ AZAZAZAZAZAZAZZAZAZAZAZAZAZA ZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZ THE MAGICALALPHABET ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262625242322212019181716151413121110987654321 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z = 351 = Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z = 126 = Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z = 9 = Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A
ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ = 351 = ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ = 126 = ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ = 9 = ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA
BEYOND THE VEIL ANOTHER VEIL ANOTHER VEIL BEYOND
THE LIGHT IS RISING NOW RISING IS THE LIGHT
.... THE LIGHT IS RISING NOW RISING IS THE LIGHT
THE MAGICALALPHABET
A MAZE IN ZAZAZA ENTERS AZAZAZ AZAZAZAZAZAZAZZAZAZAZAZAZAZA ZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZAZ THE MAGICALALPHABET ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262625242322212019181716151413121110987654321
BEYOND THE VEIL ANOTHER VEIL ANOTHER VEIL BEYOND
A HISTORY OF GOD Karen Armstrong 1993 The God of the Mystics Page 250 "Perhaps the most famous of the early Jewish mystical texts is the fifth century Sefer Yezirah (The Book of Creation). There is no attempt to describe the creative process realistically; the account is unashamedly symbolic and shows God creating the world by means of language as though he were writing a book. But language has been entirely transformed and the message of creation is no longer clear. Each letter of the Hebrew alphabet is given a numerical value; by combining the letters with the sacred numbers, rearranging them in endless configurations, the mystic weaned his mind away from the normal connotations of words."
Page 250 THERE IS NO ATTEMPT MADE TO DESCRIBE THE CREATIVE PROCESS REALISTICALLY THE ACCOUNT IS UNASHAMEDLY SYMBOLIC AND SHOWS GOD CREATING THE WORLD BY MEANS OF LANGUAGE AS THOUGH HE WERE WRITING A BOOK. BUT LANGUAGE HAS BEEN ENTIRELY TRANSFORMED AND THE MESSAGE OF CREATION IS NO LONGER CLEAR EACH LETTER OF THE HEBREW ALPHABET IS GIVEN A NUMERICAL VALUE BY COMBINING THE LETTERS WITH THE SACRED NUMBERS REARRANGING THEM IN ENDLESS CONFIGURATIONS THE MYSTIC WEANED THE MIND AWAY FROM THE NORMAL CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS
THE LIGHT IS RISING NOW RISING IS THE LIGHT
....
LIGHT AND LIFE Lars Olof Bjorn 1976 Page 197 "By writing the 26 letters of the alphabet in a certain order one may put down almost any message (this book 'is written with the same letters' as the Encyclopaedia Britannica and Winnie the Pooh, only the order of the letters differs). In the same way Nature is able to convey with her language how a cell and a whole organism is to be constructed and how it is to function. Nature has succeeded better than we humans; for the genetic code there is only one universal language which is the same in a man, a bean plant and a bacterium."
"BY WRITING THE 26 LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET IN A CERTAIN ORDER ONE MAY PUT DOWN ALMOST ANY MESSAGE"
"FOR THE GENETIC CODE THERE IS ONLY ONE UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE"
DNA AND DNA DNA AND DNA DNA AND DNA
DNA AND DNA DNA AND DNA DNA AND DNA
A QUEST FOR THE BEGINNING AND THE END Graham Hancock 1995 Chapter 32 Speaking to the Unborn Page 285 "It is understandable that a huge range of myths from all over the ancient world should describe geological catastrophes in graphic detail. Mankind survived the horror of the last Ice Age, and the most plausible source for our enduring traditions of flooding and freezing, massive volcanism and devastating earthquakes is in the tumultuous upheavals unleashed during the great meltdown of 15,000 to 8000 BC. The final retreat of the ice sheets, and the consequent 300-400 foot rise in global sea levels, took place only a few thousand years before the beginning of the historical period. It is therefore not surprising that all our early civilizations should have retained vivid memories of the vast cataclysms that had terrified their forefathers. A message in the bottle of time 'Of all the other stupendous inventions,' Galileo once remarked, what sublimity of mind must have been his who conceived how to communicate his most secret thoughts to any other person, though very distant either in time or place, speaking with those who are in the Indies, speaking to those who are not yet born, nor shall be this thousand or ten thousand years? And with no greater difficulty than the various arrangements of two dozen little signs on paper? Let this be the seal of all the admirable inventions of men.3 If the 'precessional message' identified by scholars like Santillana, von Dechend and Jane Sellers is indeed a deliberate attempt at communication by some lost civilization of antiquity, how come it wasn't just written down and left for us to find? Wouldn't that have been easier than encoding it in myths? Perhaps. "What one would look for, therefore, would be a universal language, the kind of language that would be comprehensible to any technologically advanced society in any epoch, even a thousand or ten thousand years into the future. Such languages are few and far between, but mathematics is one of them" "WRITTEN IN THE ETERNAL LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS"
THERE IS NO ATTEMPT MADE TO DESCRIBE THE CREATIVE PROCESS REALISTICALLY THE ACCOUNT IS SYMBOLIC AND SHOWS GOD CREATING THE WORLD BY MEANS OF LANGUAGE AS THOUGH WRITING A BOOK BUT LANGUAGE ENTIRELY TRANSFORMED THE MESSAGE OF CREATION IS CLEAR EACH LETTER OF THE ALPHABET IS GIVEN A NUMERICAL VALUE BY COMBINING THE LETTERS WITH THE SACRED NUMBERS REARRANGING THEM IN ENDLESS CONFIGURATIONS THE MYSTIC WEANED THE MIND AWAY FROM THE NORMAL CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS
....
THE LIGHT IS RISING NOW RISING IS THE LIGHT
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z =351= Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z =126= Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z =9= Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A
ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ =351= ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ =126= ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ =9= ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA
EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE LOVE SOLVES LOVE EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE
THE DEATH OF GODS IN ANCIENT EGYPT Jane B. Sellars 1992 Page 204 "The overwhelming awe that accompanies the realization, of the measurable orderliness of the universe strikes modern man as well. Admiral Weiland E. Byrd, alone In the Antarctic for five months of polar darkness, wrote these phrases of intense feeling: Here were the imponderable processes and forces of the cosmos, harmonious and soundless. Harmony, that was it! I could feel no doubt of oneness with the universe. The conviction came that the rhythm was too orderly, too harmonious, too perfect to be a product of blind chance - that, therefore there must be purpose in the whole and that man was part of that whole and not an accidental offshoot. It was a feeling that transcended reason; that went to the heart of man's despair and found it groundless. The universe was a cosmos, not a chaos; man was as rightfully a part of that cosmos as were the day and night.10 Returning to the account of the story of Osiris, son of Cronos god of' Measurable Time, Plutarch takes, pains to remind the reader of the original Egyptian year consisting of 360 days. Phrases are used that prompt simple mental. calculations and an attention to numbers, for example, the 360-day year is described as being '12 months of 30 days each'. Then we are told that, Osiris leaves on a long journey, during which Seth, his evil brother, plots with 72 companions to slay Osiris: He also secretly obtained the measure of Osiris and made ready a chest in which to entrap him. The, interesting thing about this part of the-account is that nowhere in the original texts of the Egyptians are we told that Seth, has 72 companions. We have already been encouraged to equate Osiris with the concept of measured time; his father being Cronos. It is also an observable fact that Cronos-Saturn has the longest sidereal period of the known planets at that time, an orbit. of 30 years. Saturn is absent from a specific constellation for that length of time. A simple mathematical fact has been revealed to any that are even remotely sensitive to numbers: if you multiply 72 by 30, the years of Saturn's absence (and the mention of Osiris's absence prompts one to recall this other), the resulting product is 2,160: the number of years required, for one 30° shift, or a shift: through one complete sign of the zodiac. This number multplied by the / Page205 / 12 signs also gives 25,920. (And Plutarch has reminded us of 12) If you multiply the unusual number 72 by 360, a number that Plutarch mentions several times, the product will be 25,920, again the number of years symbolizing the ultimate rebirth. This 'Eternal Return' is the return of, say, Taurus to the position of marking the vernal equinox by 'riding in the solar bark with. Re' after having relinquished this honoured position to Aries, and subsequently to the to other zodiacal constellations. Such a return after 25,920 years is indeed a revisit to a Golden Age, golden not only because of a remarkable symmetry In the heavens, but golden because it existed before the Egyptians experienced heaven's changeability. But now to inform the reader of a fact he or she may already know. Hipparaus did: not really have the exact figures: he was a trifle off in his observations and calculations. In his published work, On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Signs, he gave figures of 45" to 46" a year, while the truer precessional lag along the ecliptic is about 50 seconds. The exact measurement for the lag, based on the correct annual lag of 50'274" is 1° in 71.6 years, or 360° in 25,776 years, only 144 years less than the figure of 25,920. With Hipparchus's incorrect figures a 'Great Year' takes from 28,173.9 to 28,800 years, incorrect by a difference of from 2,397.9 years to 3,024. Since Nicholas Copernicus (AD 1473-1543) has always been credited with giving the correct numbers (although Arabic astronomer Nasir al-Din Tusi,11 born AD 1201, is known to have fixed the Precession at 50°), we may correctly ask, and with justifiable astonishment 'Just whose information was Plutarch transmitting' AN IMPORTANT POSTSCRIPT Of course, using our own notational system, all the important numbers have digits that reduce to that amazing number 9 a number that has always delighted budding mathematician. Page 206 Somewhere along the way, according to Robert Graves, 9 became the number of lunar wisdom.12 This number is found often in the mythologies of the world. the Viking god Odin hung for nine days and nights on the World Tree in order to acquire the secret of the runes, those magic symbols out of which writing and numbers grew. Only a terrible sacrifice would give away this secret, which conveyed upon its owner power and dominion over all, so Odin hung from his neck those long 9 days and nights over the 'bottomless abyss'. In the tree were 9 worlds, and another god was said to have been born of 9 mothers. Robert Graves, in his White Goddess, Is intrigued by the seemingly recurring quality of the number 72 in early myth and ritual. Graves tells his reader that 72 is always connected with the number 5, which reflects, among other things, the five Celtic dialects that he was investigating. Of course, 5 x 72= 360, 360 x 72= 25,920. Five is also the number of the planets known to the ancient world, that is, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus Mercury. Graves suggests a religious mystery bound up with two ancient Celtic 'Tree Alphabets' or cipher alphabets, which as genuine articles of Druidism were orally preserved and transmitted for centuries. He argues convincingly that the ancient poetry of Europe was ultimately based on what its composers believed to be magical principles, the rudiments of which formed a close religious secret for centuries. In time these were-garbled, discredited and forgotten. Among the many signs of the transmission of special numbers he points out that the aggregate number of letter strokes for the complete 22-letter Ogham alphabet that he is studying is 72 and that this number is the multiple of 9, 'the number of lunar wisdom'. . . . he then mentions something about 'the seventy day season during which Venus moves successively from. maximum eastern elongation 'to inferior conjunction and maximum western elongation'.13 Page 207 "...Feniusa Farsa, Graves equates this hero with Dionysus. Farsa has 72 assistants who helped him master the 72 languages created at the confusion of Babel, the tower of which is said to be built of 9 different materials We are also reminded of the miraculous translation into Greek of the Five Books of Moses that was done by 72 scholars working for 72 days, Although the symbol for the Septuagint is LXX, legend, according to the fictional letter of Aristeas, records 72. The translation was done for Ptolemy Philadelphus (c.250 BC), by Hellenistic Jews, possibly from Alexandra.14 Graves did not know why this number was necessary, but he points out that he understands Frazer's Golden Bough to be a book hinting that 'the secret involves the truth that the Christian dogma, and rituals, are the refinement of a great body of primitive beliefs, and that the only original element in Christianity- is the personality of Christ.15 Frances A. Yates, historian of Renaissance hermetisma tells, us the cabala had 72 angels through which the sephiroth (the powers of God) are believed to be approached, and further, she supplies the information that although the Cabala supplied a set of 48 conclusions purporting to confirm the Christian religion from the foundation of ancient wisdom, Pico Della Mirandola, a Renaissance magus, introduced instead 72, which were his 'own opinion' of the correct number. Yates writes, 'It is no accident there are seventy-two of Pico's Cabalist conclusions, for the conclusion shows that he knew something of the mystery of the Name of God with seventy-two letters.'16 In Hamlet's Mill de Santillana adds the facts that 432,000 is the number of syllables in the Rig-Veda, which when multiplied by the soss (60) gives 25,920" (The reader is forgiven for a bit of laughter at this point) The Bible has not escaped his pursuit. A prominent Assyriologist of the last century insisted that the total of the years recounted mounted in Genesis for the lifetimes of patriarchs from the Flood also contained the needed secret numbers. (He showed that in the 1,656 years recounted in the Bible there are 86,400 7 day weeks, and dividing this number yields / Page 208 / 43,200.) In Indian yogic schools it is held that all living beings exhale and inhale 21,600 times a day, multiply this by 2 and again we have the necessary 432 digits. Joseph Campbell discerns the secret in the date set for the coming of Patrick to Ireland. Myth-gives this date-as-the interesting number of AD.432.18 Whatever one may think-of some of these number coincidences, it becomes difficult to escape the suspicion that many signs (number and otherwise) - indicate that early man observed the results of the movement of Precession and that the - transmission of this information was considered of prime importance. With the awareness of the phenomenon, observers would certainly have tried for its measure, and such an endeavour would have constituted the construction-of a 'Unified Field Theory' for nothing less than Creation itself. Once determined, it would have been information worthy of secrecy and worthy of the passing on to future adepts. But one last word about mankind's romance with number coincidences.The antagonist in John Updike's novel, Roger's Version, is a computer hacker, who, convinced, that scientific evidence of God's existence is accumulating, endeavours to prove it by feeding -all the available scientific information. into a comuter. In his search for God 'breaking, through', he has become fascinated by certain numbers that have continually been cropping up. He explains them excitedly as 'the terms of Creation': "...after a while I noticed that all over the sheet there seemed to hit these twenty-fours Jumping out at me. Two four; two, four. Planck time, for instance, divided by the radiation constant yields a figure near eight times ten again to the negative twenty-fourth, and the permittivity of free space, or electric constant, into the Bohr radius ekla almost exactly six times ten to the negative twenty-fourth. On positive side, the electromagnetic line-structure constant times Hubble radius - that is, the size of the universe as we now perceive it gives us something quite close to ten to the twenty-fourth, and the strong-force constant times the charge on the proton produces two point four times ten to the negative eighteenth, for another I began to circle twenty-four wherever it appeared on the Printout here' - he held it up his piece of stripped and striped wallpaper, decorated / Page 209 /
with a number of scarlet circles - 'you can see it's more than random.'19 So much for any scorn directed to ancient man's fascination with number coincidences. That fascination is alive and well, Just a bit more incomprehensible"
NUMBER 9 THE SEARCH FOR THE SIGMA CODE Cecil Balmond 1998 Cycles and Patterns Page 165 Patterns "The essence of mathematics is to look for patterns. Our minds seem to be organised to search for relationships and sequences. We look for hidden orders. These intuitions seem to be more important than the facts themselves, for there is always the thrill at finding something, a pattern, it is a discovery - what was unknown is now revealed. Imagine looking up at the stars and finding the zodiac! Searching out patterns is a pure delight. Suddenly the counters fall into place and a connection is found, not necessarily a geometric one, but a relationship between numbers, pictures of the mind, that were not obvious before. There is that excitement of finding order in something that was otherwise hidden. And there is the knowledge that a huge unseen world lurks behind the facades we see of the numbers themselves."
....
THE LIGHT IS RISING NOW RISING IS THE LIGHT
IN OUR TIME Last broadcast on Thu, 18 Dec 2003, 21:30 on BBC Radio 4 "Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the feat of astonishing intellectual engineering which provides us with millions of words in hundreds of languages. At the start of the twentieth century, in the depths of an ancient Egyptian turquoise mine on the Sinai peninsular, an archaeologist called Sir Flinders Petrie made an exciting discovery. Scratched onto rocks, pots and portable items, he found scribblings of a very unexpected but strangely familiar nature. He had expected to see the complex pictorial hieroglyphic script the Egyptian establishment had used for over 1000 years, but it seemed that at this very early period, 1700 BC, the mine workers and Semitic slaves had started using a new informal system of graffiti, one which was brilliantly simple, endlessly adaptable and perfectly portable: the Alphabet. This was probably the earliest example of an alphabetic script and it bears an uncanny resemblance to our own. Did the alphabet really spring into life almost fully formed? How did it manage to conquer three quarters of the globe? And despite its Cyrillic and Arabic variations and the myriad languages it has been used to write, why is there essentially only one alphabet anywhere in the world?"
THE FIFTH ELEMENT A Novel By Terry Bisson From The Screenplay By Luc Besson & Robert Mark Kamen Based On a Story By Luc Besson THE FIFTH ELEMENT A Film By Luc Besson Page 14 “the Fifth Element,” whispered the priest, his words as soft as a prayer. Page 133 Pop! Pop! Pop! Page 242 “He struck the match Okay! Finished!" Leeloo said. She was speaking English? Korben looked at her in amazement. "Finished what?" Learning languages." She switched off the computer. "You mean . . . English?" She nodded. "All nine hundred!" Korben was amazed. "You learned all nine hundred Earth languages in just five minutes?. "Yes! Now it's your turn. I learned your language; you have to learn mine."
THE SIRIUS MYSTERY Robert K.G.Temple 1976 Page 82 The Sacred Fifty "We must return to the treatise 'The Virgin of the World'. This treatise is quite explicit in saying that Isis and Osiris were sent to help the Earth by giving primitive mankind the arts of civilization: 'How was it, mother, then, that Earth received God's Efflux?' And Isis said: 'I may not tell the story of (this) birth; for it is not permitted to describe the origin of thy descent, O Horus (son) of mighty power, lest afterwards the way-of-birth of the immortal gods should be known unto men - except so far that God the Monarch, the universal Orderer and Architect, sent for a little while thy mighty sire Osiris, and the mightiest goddess Isis, that they might help the world, for all things needed them. "Page 73 A Fairy Tale 'I INVOKE THEE, LADY ISIS, WITH WHOM THE GOOD DAIMON DOTH UNITE, HE WHO IS LORD IN THE PERFECT BLACK.'
THE SIRIUS MYSTERY Robert K.G.Temple 1976 Page 74 "Mead quotes an Egyptian magic papyrus, this being an uncontested Egyptian document which he compares to a passage in the Trismegistic literature: 'I invoke thee, Lady Isis, with whom the Good Daimon doth unite, He who is Lord in the perfect black. '37 Page 77 "Bearing these books in mind (and I am sure they are there waiting underground like a time bomb for us), it is interesting to read this passage in 'TheVirgin of the World' following shortly upon that previously quoted: Page 82 "We must note Stecchini's remarks about Delphi as follows :38
ORACLE = 9
OSIRIS 89 8x9 72 8x9 89 OSIRIS
SIRIUSOSIRISISISISIRISISTERIS
I ME SOS SIGNALS SOS COMETH FORTH COMETH MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY REVEAL O I O REVEAL THAT THAT THAT ISISIS WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE LIFE FORM SOUNDING THE OM TONE SACRED NOTE OM THE ANSWER ANWERS IT IS THE E IN PLANET EARTH THAT IS THE LIFE FORM TRANSMTTING THE SOS MAYDAY SOS ALARM CALL ALARM SEE SAID THE SEER THE BLU E PLANET ITSELF SINGS ITS SONG WITHIN THE SENSE OF COMING DESTINY
THE USBORNE BOOK OF FACTS AND LISTS Lynn Bressler (no date) Page 82 10 most spoken languages The first alphabet Sounds strange The Rosetta Stone Did You KnowMany Chinese cannot understand each other. They have different ways of speaking (called dialects) in different Translating computers Worldwide language Page 83 Earliest writing Chinese writing has been found on pottery, and even on a tortoise shell, going back 6,000 years. Pictures made the basis for their writing, each picture showing an object or idea. Probably the earliest form of writing came from the Middle East, where Iraq and Iran are now. This region was then ruled by the Sumerians. The most words English has more words in it than any other language. There are about1 million in all, a third of which are technical terms. Most A scientific word describing a process in the human cell is 207,000 letters long. This makes this single word equal in length to a short novel or about 80 typed sheets of A4 paper. Many tongues International language The languages of India and Europe may originally come from just one source. Many words in different languages sound similar. For example, the word for King in Latin is Rex, in Indian, Raj, in Italian Re, in French Roi and in Spanish Rey. The original language has been named Indo-European. Basque, spoken in the French and Spanish Pyrenees, is an exception. It seems to have a different source which is still unknown. Number of alphabets
Daily Mail, Monday, December 21, 2015 Page 45 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS QUESTION If E is the most used letter of our alphabet, in what order of usage are the remaining 25 letters? CODEBREAKERS are especially interested in frequency analysis. The most basic encryption text is achieved by simply replacing one letter by another. So to decipher such an encryption, it's useful to get a frequency count of all the letters. The most frequent letter might represent the most common letter in English, E followed by T, A, 0 and I. The least frequent are Q, Z and X.
DAILY MAIL Monday, October 8, 2007 Harry Bingham Page 15 "YOU SAY POTATO, I SAY GHOUGHBTEIGHPTEAU !" "...Yes you CAN spell potato like that. It's one of the amazing quirks which make English the world's dominant language
"ABOUT three years ago I started researching a book, This Little Britain, about the various ways in which
we Brits have a history . BUT perhaps that's to measure things the wrong way. If you look at Nobel Prizes by language, then English wins by a country mile 26 laureates vs 13 for France). More to the point, the Nobel Prize Committee is just that: a committee. Wouldn't it be better to let the world's reading public determine which literature it favours? Alas, there are no reliable global sales figures available.
"YOU SAY POTATO, I SAY GHOUGHBTEIGHPTEAU !"
"How about 'potato' as in
INDIA I AND I INDIA
Amazon.com Apple iBookstore Barnes & Noble Lord Kapila is a renowned sage and the author of the philosophical system known as Sankhya, which forms an important part of India's ancient philosophical heritage. Sankhya is a system of metaphysics that deals with the elemental principles of the universe; it is also a system of spiritual knowledge, with its own methodology, and culminates in full consciousness of the Supreme Absolute. Lord Kapila, however, is not an ordinary philosopher or sage but an incarnation of God. This book deals with his answers to his mother's enquiry about how to overcome ignorance and delusion and attain spiritual enlightenment.
LORD KAPILA 99-45-9 9-45-99 KAPILA LORD KAPILA 50-23-5 5-23-50 KAPILA DEVAHUTI 90-36-9 9-36-90 DEVAHUTI
Teachings of Lord Kapila | Krishna.com krishna.com/books/teachings-of-lord-kapila Lord Kapila's answers to his mother's inquiry about how to overcome ignorance and attain spiritual enlightenment. Lord Kapila is a renowned sage and the ... Teachings of Lord Kapila The Son of Devahuti Lord Kapila's answers to his mother's inquiry about how to overcome ignorance and attain spiritual enlightenment. Lord Kapila is a renowned sage and the author of the philosophical system known as Sankhya, which forms an important part of India's ancient philosophical heritage. Sankhya is a system of metaphysics that deals with the elemental principles of the universe; it is also a system of spiritual knowledge, with its own methodology, and culminates in full consciousness of the Supreme Absolute. Lord Kapila, however, is not an ordinary philosopher or sage but an incarnation of God. This book deals with his answers to his mother's enquiry about how to overcome ignorance and delusion and attain spiritual enlightenment. The underlying theme running throughout his answers and throughout Srila Prabhupada's commentaries on them is that one can achieve this goal by practicing bhakti-yoga, the process of linking one's heart to the Lord's heart through loving devotional service. This series, with original Sanskrit, translations, and purports, sheds light on such topics as the significance of the guru, the psychology of consciousness, the characteristics of a self-realized person, the science of meditation, the nature of transcendental knowledge, and the process of ultimate liberation.
THE GUINNESS ENCYCLOPEDIA John Foley 1993 ALPHABETOLOGY SIGNS AND SYMBOLS Page 22 The most commonly used numerical symbols throughout the modern World; the so-called Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 derive ultimately from a system developed by the Hindus in India sometime between the 3rd Century B,C. and 6th Century A.D. The more rounded Western Arabic numerals were introduced into Spain by the Moors in the 10th Century. The first European to take serious note of the new numeration was the French scholar Gerbert of Aurilliac (Pope Sylvester II from 999 to 1003) who had studied the system in Spain The Hindus are also credited with the invention at some unknown date of the symbol for zero, which was first written as a small circle and later reduced to a large dot. The nine Indian figures are : 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 With these nine figures and with the sign O any number may be written. Leonardo of Pisa Liber abaci
1234 5 6789 ONE TWO THREE FOUR 5FIVE5 SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE 1234 5 6789 9876 5 4321 NINE EIGHT SEVEN SIX 5FIVE5 FOUR THREE TEO ONE 9876 5 4321
THE LOST LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLISM Harold Bayley The Lost Language of Symbolism: An Inquiry into the Origin of Certain Letters, Words, Names, Fairy-Tales, Folklore, and Mythologies. 2 vol. 1912 Page 41 "Mysticism has universally taught that every man has within himself the germs or seeds of Divinity, and that by self-conquest these sparks of Heaven may be fanned into a flame, the flame into a fire, the fire into a star, and the star into a sun."
THE LOST LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLISM Harold Bayley The Lost Language of Symbolism: An Inquiry into the Origin of Certain Letters, Words, Names, Fairy-Tales, Folklore, and Mythologies. 2 vol. 1912 INTRODUCTION "... Although etymologists are agreed that language is fossil poetry and that the creation of every word was originally a poem embodying a bold metaphor or a bright conception, it is quite unrealised how close and intimate a relation exists between symbolism and philology. But, as Renouf points out, " It is not improbable that the cat, in Egyptian Mau, became the symbol of the Sun-God or Day, because the word Mau also means light." 1 Renouf likewise notes that not only was RA the name of the Sun-God, but that it was also the usual Egyptian word for Sun. Similarly the Goose, one of the symbols of SEB, was called a Seb ; the Crocodile, one of the symbols of SEBEK, was called a Sebek; the Ibis, one of the symbols of TECHU, was called a Techu ; and the Jackal, one of the symbols of ANPU (ANUBIS), was called an Anpu. Page 11. Notes.1 On the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion 0/
SOME MYSTICAL ADVENTURES G, R, S. Mead 1910 XIII ON THE ART OF SYMBOLISM. Page 180 "The Mind of the Father hath sown symbols through the world." THE CHALDAEAN ORACLES. " MANY people talk vaguely about symbols and some are really interested in symbolism; but even of those who may happen to possess a little learning on the subject, how few are there who, if they turn and really face themselves and there is no audience to play to, can say they have got to the heart of the matter, or know how rightly to seize the proteus whose changing forms they are ever grasping at, and so force it to speak true words? Page 181 'Symbol' is no native name; it is a Greek importation (symbolon), and its root-meaning is said to be a sign, or token, by which one knows or infers a thing. The utterance of this word should awaken in us the idea of putting together (sym-ballein), with the notion (in the passive) of to correspond and to tally. But to put together is to compare, and so to compare one's own opinion with facts, and hence to conclude, infer, conjecture, interpret; and it is from this last meaning that, the wisdom of the word-books tells us, we get the meaning of symbol as a sign, or token, by which one knows or infers a thing. Page 189 If, for instance, he think of 'potter' and , clay,' he should try to imagine the substance of the mind being moulded from one to the other continuously backwards and forwards, and watch them grow within himself. When practising symbols we should never' objectivise' or project; we should rather' feel' them grow within, and then an occasional idea may flash through. Page 188. Notes. * The earliest redactor of the Naassene Document writes: "And the Chaldreans say that Soul is very difficult to discover and hard to understand; for it never remains of the same appearance, or form, or in the same state, so that one can describe it by a general type, or comprehend it by an essential quality." On this the Church Father Hippolytus comments, referring to the Naassenes, or Disciples of the Serpent of Wisdom: "These variegated metamorphoses they have laid down in the Gospel superscribed 'According to the Egyptians.''' (See Thricegreatest Hermes, i. 150.)
NAASSENE 51111555 NAASSENE
LIGHT 56-29-11-2-11-29-56 LIGHT ISIS 56-20-2-2-56 ISIS
THE LOST LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLISM AN ENQUIRY INTO THE ORIGIN OF CERTAIN LETTERS, WORDS, NAMES, FAIRY-TALES, FOLK-LORE AND MYTHOLOGIES Harold Bayley 1912 "The Hebrew for man is ish and for woman isha." Page 300 "Each language, whether Sanscrit or Zulu, is like a palimpsest, which, if carefully handled, will disclose the original text beneath the superficial writing, and though that original text may be more difficult to recover in illiterate languages, yet it is there nevertheless. Every language, if properly summoned, will reveal to us the mind of the artist who framed it, from its earliest awakening to its latest dreams. Everyone will teach us the same lesson, the lesson on which the whole Science of Thought is based, that there is no language without reason, as there is no reason with.out language."1 An analysis of the several terms for man, soul, or spirit reveals the time-honoured belief that the human race emerged in its infancy from the Great Light, and that every human soul was a spark or fragment of the EverExistent Oversoul. The Egyptian for man was se, the German for soul is seele - cognate with Selah! - and meaning likewise the "Light of the Everlasting." The Dutch for soul is ziel, the fiery light of God, and the English soul was once presumably is ol, the essence or light of God.2 The Hebrew for man is ish and for woman isha.
SELAH HALES
THE LOST LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLISM Harold Bayley 1912 Page 300 The Latin homo is OM, the Sun, as also is the French homme ; and dme, the French for soul, is apparently the Hindoo AUM. The ancient Mexicans traced their descent from an ancestor named Coxcox, i.e. ack ock se, ack ock se, the "Great Great Light, the Great Great Light." 8 The Teutons claim to have descended from TIU or TUISCO, an Aryan God of Light, and the name TUISCO may be restored into tu is ack O , the "brilliant light of the Great O." Page 300 Notes 1 Biographieses of Words, Intro.
THE MAGIC MOUNTAIN Thomas Mann 1875-1955 Page 466 "Had not the normal, since time was, lived on the achievements of the abnormal? Men consciously and voluntarily descended into disease and madness, in search of knowledge which, acquired by fanaticism, would lead back to health; after the possession and use of it had ceased to be conditioned by that heroic and abnormal act of sacrifice. That was the true death on the cross, the true Atonement." "
THE TRUE DEATH ON THE CROSS THE TRUE AT ONE MENT
ATONEMENT
CRUCIFIXION
CRUCIFIED
HOLY BIBLE
IN SEARCH OF THE MIRACULOUS Fragments of an Unknown Teaching P.D.Oupensky 1878-1947 Page 217 'A man may be born, but in order to be born he must first die, and in order to die he must first awake.'
THIS IS THE SCENE OF THE SCENE UNSEEN THE UNSEEN SEEN OF THE SCENE UNSEEN THIS IS THE SCENE
THE FAR YONDER SCRIBE AND OFT TIMES SHADOWED SUBSTANCES WATCHED IN FINE AMAZE THE ZED ALIZ ZED IN SWIFT REPEAT SCATTER STAR DUST AMONGST THE LETTERS OF THEIR PROGRESS
NUMBER 9 THE SEARCH FOR THE SIGMA CODE Cecil Balmond 1998 Cycles and Patterns Page 165 Patterns "The essence of mathematics is to look for patterns. Our minds seem to be organised to search for relationships and sequences. We look for hidden orders. These intuitions seem to be more important than the facts themselves, for there is always the thrill at finding something, a pattern, it is a discovery - what was unknown is now revealed. Imagine looking up at the stars and finding the zodiac! Searching out patterns is a pure delight. Suddenly the counters fall into place and a connection is found, not necessarily a geometric one, but a relationship between numbers, pictures of the mind, that were not obvious before. There is that excitement of finding order in something that was otherwise hidden. And there is the knowledge that a huge unseen world lurks behind the facades we see of the numbers themselves."
FINGERPRINTS OF THE GODS A QUEST FOR THE BEGINNING AND THE END Graham Hancock 1995 Chapter 32 Speaking to the Unborn Page 285 "It is understandable that a huge range of myths from all over the ancient world should describe geological catastrophes in graphic detail. Mankind survived the horror of the last Ice Age, and the most plausible source for our enduring traditions of flooding and freezing, massive volcanism and devastating earthquakes is in the tumultuous upheavals unleashed during the great meltdown of 15,000 to 8000 BC. The final retreat of the ice sheets, and the consequent 300-400 foot rise in global sea levels, took place only a few thousand years before the beginning of the historical period. It is therefore not surprising that all our early civilizations should have retained vivid memories of the vast cataclysms that had terrified their forefathers. A message in the bottle of time" 'Of all the other stupendous inventions,' Galileo once remarked, what sublimity of mind must have been his who conceived how to communicate his most secret thoughts to any other person, though very distant either in time or place, speaking with those who are in the Indies, speaking to those who are not yet born, nor shall be this thousand or ten thousand years? And with no greater difficulty than the various arrangements of two dozen little signs on paper? Let this be the seal of all the admirable inventions of men.3 If the 'precessional message' identified by scholars like Santillana, von Dechend and Jane Sellers is indeed a deliberate attempt at communication by some lost civilization of antiquity, how come it wasn't just written down and left for us to find? Wouldn't that have been easier than encoding it in myths? Perhaps. "What one would look for, therefore, would be a universal language, the kind of language that would be comprehensible to any technologically advanced society in any epoch, even a thousand or ten thousand years into the future. Such languages are few and far between, but mathematics is one of them" "WRITTEN IN THE ETERNAL LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS"
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ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE
ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE 1IX 1EVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE 2WO 2HREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGH2 NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FO3R FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FI4E SIX SE4EN EIGHT NINE Z5RO O55 T5O THR55 FOUR FIV5 SIX S5V55 5IGHT 5I55 ZER6 6NE TW6 THREE 66UR 6IVE SI6 SEVEN EIGHT NINE ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EI7HT NINE 8ERO ONE TWO T8REE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIG8T NINE ZE9O ONE TWO TH9EE FOU9 F9VE S9X SEVEN E9GHT N9NE
ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE
ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 8596 655 256 28955 6639 6945 196 15455 59782 5955 ZERO ONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE
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LETTERS TRANSPOSED INTO NUMBER REARRANGED IN NUMERICAL ORDER
THE DICTIONARY
LETTERS TRANSPOSED INTO NUMBER REARRANGED IN NUMERICAL ORDER
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z =351= Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z =126= Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z =9= Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A
ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ =351= ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ =126= ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA ABCDEFGH I JKLMNOPQ R STUVWXYZ =9= ZYXWVUTS R QPONMLKJ I HGFEDCBA
http://www.rinkworks.com/words/lettergroups.shtml Letters can be distinguished strictly by physical representation in a number of different ways. Sometimes groups of letters are given in the form of a puzzle, and you have to figure out the rule by which they are grouped. Below are several different letter groupings, which illustrate how many letters in the alphabet possess some particular characteristic. Some of the groupings below assume a sans-serif font.
HURRAH FOR RAH FOR RAH HURRAH
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/algorithm a procedure for solving a mathematical problem (as of finding the greatest common divisor) in a finite number of steps that frequently involves repetition of an ... algorithm [ˈælgəˌrɪðəm] algorithm (lg-rthm) Noun 1. algorithm - a precise rule (or set of rules) specifying how to solve some problem
Algorithm Flow chart of an algorithm (Euclid's algorithm) for calculating the greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of two numbers a and b in locations named A and B. The algorithm proceeds by successive subtractions in two loops: IF the test B ≥ A yields "yes" (or true) (more accurately the number b in location B is greater than or equal to the number a in location A) THEN, the algorithm specifies B ← B − A (meaning the number b − a replaces the old b). Similarly, IF A > B, THEN A ← A − B. The process terminates when (the contents of) B is 0, yielding the g.c.d. in A. (Algorithm derived from Scott 2009:13; symbols and drawing style from Tausworthe 1977). Informal definition No human being can write fast enough, or long enough, or small enough† ( †"smaller and smaller without limit ...you'd be trying to write on molecules, on atoms, on electrons") to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names, one after another, in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets: They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly, in a form in which they could be followed by a computing machine, or by a human who is capable of carrying out only very elementary operations on symbols.[13] Minsky: "But we will also maintain, with Turing . . . that any procedure which could "naturally" be called effective, can in fact be realized by a (simple) machine. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments . . . in its favor are hard to refute".[19] Gurevich: "...Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine ... according to Savage [1987], an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine".[20]
EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE LOVES SOLVE LOVES EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE
Algorithm - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for calculations. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and ...
NUMBER 9 THE SEARCH FOR THE SIGMA CODE Cecil Balmond 1998 Preface to the New Edition Page 5
RESEARCH R E SEARCH ER RESEARCH
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NUMBER = 534259 = 1 = 534259 NUMBER NUMBER = 234559 NUMBER NUMBER = 534259 = 1 = 534259 NUMBER
NUMBERS = 5342591 = 2 = 5342591 NUMBERS SBUMNER = 1234559 = SBUMNER NUMBERS = 5342591 = 2 = 5342591 NUMBERS
I = 9 9 = I
PROBLEMS - PROBLEMS
LETTERS RE ARRANGED NUMERICALLY
LETTERS RE ARRANGED NUMERICALLY
SOLVE PROBLEMS SOLVE
LETTERS RE ARRANGED NUMERICALLY
EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE REVOLVE EVOLVE REVOLVE EVOLVE REVOLVE SOLVE LOVES SOLVE
REAL REALITY REVEALED HAVE I MENTIONED GODS DIVINE THOUGHT HAVE I MENTIONED THAT 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 4
REAL REALITY REVEALED HAVE I MENTIONED GODS DIVINE THOUGHT HAVE I MENTIONED THAT 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 4
I ME THAT HE AZIN SHE THAT IS THEE THAT IS ME I AM THE OPPOSITE OF THE OPPOSITE I AM THE OPPOSITE OF OPPOSITE IS THE AM I ALWAYS AM BEYOND THE VEIL ANOTHER VEIL ANOTHER VEIL BEYOND ISISISISISISISISISISISIS 919919919919 ISISISISISISISISISISISIS
HAIL AND HEARTY SALUTATIONS AND FRATERNAL GREETINGS SENTIENT BEINGS OF PLANET EARTH
DIVINE THOUGHT DIVINE CREATORS 999999999999 LOVE EVOLVE LOVE EVOLVE LOVE ADDED TO ALL MINUS NONE SHARED BY EVERYTHING MULTIPLIED IN ABUNDANCE
The Upside Down of the Downside Up
IN SEARCH OF SCHRODINGER'S CAT John Gribbin 1984 "QUANTUM PHYSICS AND REALITY"
THE USBORNE BOOK OF FACTS AND LISTS Lynn Bressler (no date) Page 82 10 most spoken languages The first alphabet Sounds strange The Rosetta Stone Did You KnowMany Chinese cannot understand each other. They have different ways of speaking (called dialects) in different Translating computers Worldwide language Page 83 Earliest writing Chinese writing has been found on pottery, and even on a tortoise shell, going back 6,000 years. Pictures made the basis for their writing, each picture showing an object or idea. Probably the earliest form of writing came from the Middle East, where Iraq and Iran are now. This region was then ruled by the Sumerians. The most words English has more words in it than any other language. There are about1 million in all, a third of which are technical terms. Most A scientific word describing a process in the human cell is 207,000 letters long. This makes this single word equal in length to a short novel or about 80 typed sheets of A4 paper. Many tongues International language The languages of India and Europe may originally come from just one source. Many words in different languages sound similar. For example, the word for King in Latin is Rex, in Indian, Raj, in Italian Re, in French Roi and in Spanish Rey. The original language has been named Indo-European. Basque, spoken in the French and Spanish Pyrenees, is an exception. It seems to have a different source which is still unknown. Number of alphabets
THE MAGICALALPHABET ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262625242322212019181716151413121110987654321
BEYOND THE VEIL ANOTHER VEIL ANOTHER VEIL BEYOND
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No curved lines - A.E.F.H.I.K.L.M.N.T.V.W.X.Y.Z. No straight lines-C.O.S. No enclosed areas-C.E.F.G.H.I.J.K.L.M.N.S.T.U.V.W.X.Y.Z. Horizontal symmetry-B.C.D.E.H.I.K.O.X. Vertical symmetry-A.H.I.M.O.T.U.V.W.X.Y. Roman numerals-C.D.I.L.M.V.X. Just dots in Morse code-E.H.I.S. Just dashes in Morse code-M.O.T. Horizontal and vertical symmetry-H.I.O.X. Look the same upside down-H.I.N.O.S.X.Z. Can be drawn in one stroke-B.C.D.G.I.J.L.M.N.O.P.R.S.U.V.W.Z. Capitals which look like lowercase-C.O.P.S.U.V.W.X.Z.
THE ADVENTURE OF ENGLISH THE BIOGRAPHY OF A LANGUAGE Page 7 "Then came the great work, the laying of the foundations of the English language, and one which endures vigorously to this day. The hundred words are: 1. the; 2. of; 3. and; 4. a; 5. to; 6. in; 7. is; 8. you; 9. that; lO. it; 11. he; 12. was; 13. for; 14. on; 15. are; 16. as; 17. with; 18. his; 19. they; 20. I; 21. at; 22. be; 23. this; 24. have; 25. from; 26. or; 27. one; 28. had; 29. by; 30. word; 31. but; 32. not; 33. what; 34. all; 35. were; 36. we; 37. when; 38. your; 39. can; 40. said; 41. there; 42. use; 43. an; 44. each; 45. which; 46. she; 47. do; 48. how; 49. their; 50. if; 51. will; 52. up; 53. other; 54. abour; 55. out; 56; many; 57. then; 58. them; 59. these; 60. so; 61. some; 62. her; 63. would; 64. make; 65. like; 66. him; 67. into; 68. time; 69. has; 70. look; 71. two; 72. more; 73. write; 74. go; 75. see; 76. number; 77. no; 78. way; 79. could; 80. people; 81. my; 82. than; 83. first; 84. water; 85. been; 86. call; 87. who; 88. oil; 89. its; 90. now; 91. find; 92. long; 93. down; 94. day; 95. did; 96. get; 97. come; 98. made; 99. may; 100. part."
What is a 'neener' - WikiAnswers wiki.answers.com › ... › Idioms, Cliches, and Slang Meaning of 'Neener' Neener Neener is an expression that most Americans aged 40 or under are probably familiar with. Following is a typical example of usage: ...
Where does "neener neener neener" come from? - Straight Dope ... boards.straightdope.com › ... › Main › General Questions 28 Nov 2000 - 12 posts - 10 authors
neener - Wiktionary en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neener Grizzy shouted. She ran up to some old Grouch ladies. She stuck her tongue out at them. She blew a great big razzberry at them. "Neener, neener, neener!"...linguaphiles: Neener-neener
linguaphiles.livejournal.com/1509243.html 28 Mar 2005 - Is the childhood taunt 'neener-neener' always considered an insult, or is there a use that's not an insult? Any ideas about its origins? Thanks.
neener, neener, pumpkin eater - definition and meaning https://www.wordnik.com/.../neener,%20neener,%20pumpkin%20eater neener, neener, pumpkin eater. Define; Relate; List; Discuss ... These user-created lists contain the word 'neener, neener, pumpkin eater'. Nyah, nyah, nyah.
Dubya Pee'z Geekology Cogitation Manual books.google.co.uk/books?isbn=1456729314 Robert Tracy - 2011 - Fiction
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Daily Mail Thursday, June 11 2009 Page 37 Web 2.0 - the one millionth English word ALMOST 1,500 years after it was first recorded, the English language has its one millionth word. At 10.22am yesterday Web 2.0 - describing the next generation of internet services entered the dictionary. To be accepted a word must be used at least 25,000 times across national boundaries and outside specialisms. U.S-based Global Language Monitor surveys print publications, online news sites, blogs and social media for useage. Jai Ho!, a Hindi phrase signifying the joy of victory became the 999,999th word thanks to the Oscar-Winning film Slumdog millionaire. At 1,000,001 is Financial Tsunami - a sudden financial restructuring.
"JAI HO! A HINDI PHRASE SIGNIFYING THE JOY OF VICTORY BECAME THE 999,999TH WORD..."
THERE IS NO ATTEMPT MADE TO DESCRIBE THE CREATIVE PROCESS REALISTICALLY THE ACCOUNT IS SYMBOLIC AND SHOWS GOD CREATING THE WORLD BY MEANS OF LANGUAGE AS THOUGH WRITING A BOOK BUT LANGUAGE ENTIRELY TRANSFORMED THE MESSAGE OF CREATION IS CLEAR EACH LETTER OF THE ALPHABET IS GIVEN A NUMERICAL VALUE BY COMBINING THE LETTERS WITH THE SACRED NUMBERS REARRANGING THEM IN ENDLESS CONFIGURATIONS THE MYSTIC WEANED THE MIND AWAY FROM THE NORMAL CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS
....
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LAND ENGAGE LAND ENGAGE
BBC - Languages - Languages - Languages of the world ...
Alphabet - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet An alphabet is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols or graphemes) which is used to write one or more languages based on the general principle that ... Alphabet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about sets of letters used in written languages. For other uses, see Alphabet (disambiguation). An alphabet is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols or graphemes) which is used to write one or more languages based on the general principle that the letters represent phonemes (basic significant sounds) of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries (in which each character represents a syllable) and logographies (in which each character represents a word, morpheme or semantic unit). A true alphabet has letters for the vowels of a language as well as the consonants. The first "true alphabet" in this sense is believed to be the Greek alphabet,[1][2] which is a modified form of the Phoenician alphabet. In other types of alphabet either the vowels are not indicated at all, as was the case in the Phoenician alphabet (such systems are known as abjads), or else the vowels are shown by diacritics or modification of consonants, as in the devanagari used in India and Nepal (these systems are known as abugidas or alphasyllabaries). There are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet[3] (which was derived from the Greek). Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines (linear writing), there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille, fingerspelling, and Morse code. Alphabets are usually associated with a standard ordering of their letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order. It also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of "numbering" ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists. Contents 3 Types Etymology[edit] The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, which in turn originated in the Greek ἀλφάβητος (alphabētos), from alpha and beta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet.[4] Alpha and beta in turn came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, and originally meant ox and house respectively. History[edit] Main article: History of the alphabet A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals,[5] to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.[6] A specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script, one of the earliest (if not the very first) phonemic scripts The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called "Proto-Canaanite" before ca. 1050 BC.[10] The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram. This script is the parent script of all western alphabets. By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely Canaanite and Aramaic. The Aramaic gave rise to Hebrew.[11] The South Arabian alphabet, a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the Ge'ez alphabet (an abugida) is descended. Vowelless alphabets, which are not true alphabets, are called abjads, currently exemplified in scripts including Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac. The omission of vowels was not a satisfactory solution and some "weak" consonants were used to indicate the vowel quality of a syllable (matres lectionis). These had dual function since they were also used as pure consonants.[12] The Proto-Sinatic or Proto Canaanite script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script[8][10] and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically. The script was spread by the Phoenicians, across the Mediterranean.[10] In Greece, the script was modified to add the vowels, giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. The indication of the vowels is the same way as the indication of the consonants, therefore it was the first true alphabet. The Greeks took letters which did not represent sounds that existed in Greek, and changed them to represent the vowels. The vowels are significant in the Greek language, and the syllabical Linear B script which was used by the Mycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols including 5 vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, a situation which caused many different alphabets to evolve from it. European alphabets[edit] Codex Zographensis in the Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval Bulgaria Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures, such as æ in Old English and Icelandic and Ȣ in Algonquian; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the thorn þ in Old English and Icelandic, which came from the Futhark runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the eth ð of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified d. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, and Italian, which uses the letters j, k, x, y and w only in foreign words. Another notable script is Elder Futhark, which is believed to have evolved out of one of the Old Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the Runic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages. Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century. The Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century it once again became more and more popular. The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the Cyrillic script. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts, and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former Soviet Union. Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, and Russian alphabets. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius, while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by the Bulgarian scholar Clement of Ohrid, who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by the Greek alphabet and the Hebrew alphabet. Asian alphabets[edit] Beyond the logographic Chinese writing, many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The Arabic alphabet, Hebrew alphabet, Syriac alphabet, and other abjads of the Middle East are developments of the Aramaic alphabet, but because these writing systems are largely consonant-based they are often not considered true alphabets. Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the Brahmi script, which is often believed to be a descendant of Aramaic. Zhuyin on a cell phone Zhuyin (sometimes called Bopomofo) is a semi-syllabary used to phonetically transcribe Mandarin Chinese in the Republic of China. After the later establishment of the People's Republic of China and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin, the use of Zhuyin today is limited, but it's still widely used in Taiwan where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of syllable initials are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable finals are not; rather, each possible final (excluding the medial glide) is represented by its own symbol. For example, luan is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ (l-u-an), where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final -an. While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a romanization system—that is, for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones. European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad (as with Urdu and Persian) and sometimes as a complete alphabet (as with Kurdish and Uyghur). Types[edit] Alphabets: Armenian , Cyrillic , Georgian , Greek , Latin , Latin (and Arabic) , Latin and Cyrillic History of the alphabet[show] -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The term "alphabet" is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is segmental at the phoneme level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads and abugidas. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with diacritics to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters.[14] The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad, which through its successor Phoenician is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin (via the Old Italic alphabet), Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet) and Hebrew (via Aramaic). Examples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts; true alphabets include Latin, Cyrillic, and Korean hangul; and abugidas are used to write Tigrinya, Amharic, Hindi, and Thai. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply, since each glyph stands for a consonant which is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. (In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination would be represented by a separate glyph.) All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. Ugaritic, for example, is basically an abjad, but has syllabic letters for /ʔa, ʔi, ʔu/. (These are the only time vowels are indicated.) Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet, but has syllabic letters for /ja, je, ju/ (я, е, ю); Coptic has a letter for /ti/. Devanagari is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as a zero consonant as the graphic base for such vowels. The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short a was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida (ironically, the original source of the term "abugida") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. (See below.) Ge'ez Script of Ethiopia The number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book Pahlavi script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the Rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters. (The Hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the ʻokina and five long vowels.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been conflated—that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in Arabic, another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented g, d, y, k, or j. However, such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi papyri, up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but instead each word had to be learned as a whole—that is, they had become logograms as in Egyptian Demotic. The alphabet in the Polish language contains 32 letters. The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, Devanagari. When written in Devanagari, Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the visarga mark for final aspiration and special letters for kš and jñ, though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the khutma letters (letters with a dot added) to represent sounds from Persian and English. The largest known abjad is Sindhi, with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz (for Cyrillic), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and Slovak (for the Latin script), with 46. However, these scripts either count di- and tri-graphs as separate letters, as Spanish did with ch and ll until recently, or uses diacritics like Slovak č. The largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably Georgian, with 41 letters. Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs, and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script. Alphabetical order[edit] Main article: Alphabetical order Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters, which can then be used for purposes of collation – namely for the listing of words and other items in what is called alphabetical order. The basic ordering of the Latin alphabet (ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ), which is derived from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order,[15] is well established, although languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the French é, à, and ô) and of certain combinations of letters (multigraphs). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for the purposes of collation. However, in Icelandic, the accented letters such as á, í, and ö are considered to be distinct letters of the alphabet. In Spanish, ñ is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as á and é are not. The ll and ch were also considered single letters, but in 1994 the Real Academia Española changed collating order so that ll is between lk and lm in the dictionary and ch is between cg and ci, and in 2010 the tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies changed it so they were no longer letters at all[16][17] In German, words starting with sch- (constituting the German phoneme /ʃ/) would be intercalated between words with initial sca- and sci- (all incidentally loanwords) instead of this graphic cluster appearing after the letter s, as though it were a single letter—a lexicographical policy which would be de rigueur in a dictionary of Albanian, i.e. dh-, ë-, gj-, ll-, rr-, th-, xh- and zh- (all representing phonemes and considered separate single letters) would follow the letters d, e, g, l, n, r, t, x and z respectively. Nor is, in a dictionary of English, the lexical section with initial th- reserved a place after the letter t, but is inserted between te- and ti-. German words with umlaut would further be alphabetized as if there were no umlaut at all—contrary to Turkish which allegedly adopted the German graphemes ö and ü, and where a word like tüfek, would come after tuz, in the dictionary. An exception is the German phonebook where umlauts are sorted like ä = ae since names as Jäger appear also with the spelling Jaeger, and there's no telling them apart in the spoken language. The Danish and Norwegian alphabets end with æ—ø—å, whereas the Icelandic, Swedish, Finnish and Estonian ones conventionally put å—ä—ö at the end. It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the Hanuno'o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required. However, a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ABCDE order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in Hebrew, Greek, Armenian, Gothic, Cyrillic, and Latin; the other, HMĦLQ, was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Ethiopic.[18] Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years. The historical order was abandoned in Runic and Arabic, although Arabic retains the traditional abjadi order for numbering. The Brahmic family of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on phonology: The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean hangul, and even Japanese kana, which is not an alphabet. Names of letters[edit] The Phoenician letter names, in which each letter was associated with a word that begins with that sound, continue to be used to varying degrees in Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, Greek and Arabic. The names were abandoned in Latin, which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel (usually e) before or after the consonant (the exception is zeta, which was retained from Greek). In Cyrillic originally the letters were given names based on Slavic words; this was later abandoned as well in favor of a system similar to that used in Latin. Orthography and pronunciation[edit] Main article: Phonemic orthography When an alphabet is adopted or developed for use in representing a given language, an orthography generally comes into being, providing rules for the spelling of words in that language. In accordance with the principle on which alphabets are based, these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the phonemes (significant sounds) of the spoken language. In a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes, so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. However this ideal is not normally achieved in practice; some languages (such as Spanish and Finnish) come close to it, while others (such as English) deviate from it to a much larger degree. The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: National languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as English, it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet. Some national languages like Finnish, Turkish, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking, these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb "to spell" (meaning to split a word into its letters), the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into its syllables. Similarly, the Italian verb corresponding to 'spell (out)', compitare, is unknown to many Italians because the act of spelling itself is rarely needed: Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard Spanish, it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa; this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme are languages such as English, where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Turkish alphabet of Latin origin. The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather-small universal phonetic-alphabet. A standard for this is the International Phonetic Alphabet. See also[edit] A Is For Aardvark References[edit] 1.^ Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-21481-X. Bibliography[edit] External links[edit] Look up alphabet in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
English alphabet - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_alphabet The modern English alphabet is a Latin alphabet consisting of 26 letters – the same letters that are found in the ISO basic Latin alphabet: ...
THE USBORNE BOOK OF FACTS AND LISTS Lynn Bressler (no date) Page 82 10 most spoken languages The first alphabet Sounds strange The Rosetta Stone Did You KnowMany Chinese cannot understand each other. They have different ways of speaking (called dialects) in different Translating computers Worldwide language Page 83 Earliest writing Chinese writing has been found on pottery, and even on a tortoise shell, going back 6,000 years. Pictures made the basis for their writing, each picture showing an object or idea. Probably the earliest form of writing came from the Middle East, where Iraq and Iran are now. This region was then ruled by the Sumerians. The most words English has more words in it than any other language. There are about1 million in all, a third of which are technical terms. Most A scientific word describing a process in the human cell is 207,000 letters long. This makes this single word equal in length to a short novel or about 80 typed sheets of A4 paper. Many tongues International language The languages of India and Europe may originally come from just one source. Many words in different languages sound similar. For example, the word for King in Latin is Rex, in Indian, Raj, in Italian Re, in French Roi and in Spanish Rey. The original language has been named Indo-European. Basque, spoken in the French and Spanish Pyrenees, is an exception. It seems to have a different source which is still unknown. Number of alphabets
English alphabet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "The Alphabet" redirects here. For the short film by David Lynch, see The Alphabet (film). The modern English alphabet is a Latin alphabet consisting of 26 letters – the same letters that are found in the ISO basic Latin alphabet: Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters) The exact shape of printed letters varies depending on the typeface. The shape of handwritten letters can differ significantly from the standard printed form (and between individuals), especially when written in cursive style. See the individual letter articles for information about letter shapes and origins (follow the links on any of the uppercase letters above). Written English uses a number of digraphs, such as ch, sh, th, wh, qu, etc., but they are not considered separate letters of the alphabet. Some traditions also use two ligatures, æ and œ,[1] or consider the ampersand (&) part of the alphabet.
English alphabet Contents 2 Diacritics 6 Phonology History[edit] See also: History of the Latin alphabet and English orthography Old English[edit] Main article: Old English Latin alphabet The English language was first written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in use from the 5th century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers. Very few examples of this form of written Old English have survived, these being mostly short inscriptions or fragments. The Latin script, introduced by Christian missionaries, began to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the 7th century, although the two continued in parallel for some time. Futhorc influenced the emerging English alphabet by providing it with the letters thorn (Þ þ) and wynn (Ƿ ƿ). The letter eth (Ð ð) was later devised as a modification of dee (D d), and finally yogh (Ȝ ȝ) was created by Norman scribes from the insular g in Old English and Irish, and used alongside their Carolingian g. The a-e ligature ash (Æ æ) was adopted as a letter its own right, named after a futhorc rune æsc. In very early Old English the o-e ligature ethel (Œ œ) also appeared as a distinct letter, likewise named after a rune, œðel. Additionally, the v-v or u-u ligature double-u (W w) was in use. In the year 1011, a writer named Byrhtferð ordered the Old English alphabet for numerological purposes.[2] He listed the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet (including ampersand) first, then 5 additional English letters, starting with the Tironian note ond (⁊) an insular symbol for and: In the orthography of Modern English, thorn (þ), eth (ð), wynn (ƿ), yogh (ȝ), ash (æ), and ethel (œ) are obsolete. Latin borrowings reintroduced homographs of ash and ethel into Middle English and Early Modern English, though they are not considered to be the same letters[citation needed] but rather ligatures, and in any case are somewhat old-fashioned. Thorn and eth were both replaced by th,[citation needed] though thorn continued in existence for some time, its lowercase form gradually becoming graphically indistinguishable from the minuscule y in most handwriting. Y for th can still be seen in pseudo-archaisms such as "Ye Olde Booke Shoppe". The letters þ and ð are still used in present-day Icelandic and Faroese. Wynn disappeared from English around the fourteenth century when it was supplanted by uu, which ultimately developed into the modern w. Yogh disappeared around the fifteenth century and was typically replaced by gh. The letters u and j, as distinct from v and i, were introduced in the 16th century, and w assumed the status of an independent letter, so that the English alphabet is now considered to consist of the following 26 letters: The ligatures æ and œ are still used in formal writing for certain words of Greek or Latin origin, such as encyclopædia and cœlom. Lack of awareness and technological limitations (such as their absence from the standard qwerty keyboard) have made it common to see these rendered as "ae" and "oe", respectively, in modern, non-academic usage. These ligatures are not used in American English, where a lone e has mostly supplanted both (for example, encyclopedia for encyclopædia, and fetus for fœtus). Diacritics[edit] Main article: English terms with diacritical marks Question book-new.svg Diacritic marks mainly appear in loanwords such as naïve and façade. As such words become naturalised In English, there is a tendency to drop the diacritics, as has happened with old borrowings such as hôtel, from French. Informal English writing tends to omit diacritics because of their absence from the computer keyboard, while professional copywriters and typesetters tend to include them. Words that are still perceived as foreign tend to retain them; for example, the only spelling of soupçon found in English dictionaries (the OED and others) uses the diacritic. Diacritics are also more likely to be retained where there would otherwise be confusion with another word (for example, résumé rather than resume), and, rarely, even added (as in maté, from Spanish yerba mate, but following the pattern of café, from French). Occasionally, especially in older writing, diacritics are used to indicate the syllables of a word: cursed (verb) is pronounced with one syllable, while cursèd (adjective) is pronounced with two. È is used widely in poetry, e.g. in Shakespeare's sonnets. Similarly, while in chicken coop the letters -oo- represent a single vowel sound (a digraph), in zoölogist and coöperation, they represent two. An acute, grave or diaeresis may also be placed over an 'e' at the end of a word to indicate that it is not silent, as in saké. However, in practice these devices are often not used even where they would serve to alleviate some degree of confusion. Ampersand[edit] The & has sometimes appeared at the end of the English alphabet, as in Byrhtferð's list of letters in 1011.[2] Historically, the figure is a ligature for the letters Et. In English it is used to represent the word and and occasionally the Latin word et, as in the abbreviation &c (et cetera). Apostrophe[edit] Question book-new.svg The apostrophe, while not considered part of the English alphabet, is used to abbreviate English words. A few pairs of words, such as its (belonging to it) and it's (it is or it has), were (plural of was) and we're (we are), and shed (to get rid of) and she'd (she would or she had) are distinguished in writing only by the presence or absence of an apostrophe. The apostrophe also distinguishes the possessive endings -'s and -s' from the common plural ending -s, a practice introduced in the 18th century; before, all three endings were written -s, which could lead to confusion (as in, the Apostles words). Letter names[edit] The names of the letters are rarely spelled out, except when used in derivations or compound words (for example tee-shirt, deejay, emcee, okay, aitchless, wye-level, etc.), derived forms (for example exed out, effing, to eff and blind, etc.), and in the names of objects named after letters (for example em (space) in printing and wye (junction) in railroading). The forms listed below are from the Oxford English Dictionary. Vowels stand for themselves, and consonants usually have the form consonant + ee or e + consonant (e.g. bee and ef). The exceptions are the letters aitch, jay, kay, cue, ar, ess (but es- in compounds ), wye, and zed. Plurals of consonants end in -s (bees, efs, ems) or, in the cases of aitch, ess, and ex, in -es (aitches, esses, exes). Plurals of vowels end in -es (aes, ees, ies, oes, ues); these are rare. Of course, all letters may stand for themselves, generally in capitalized form (okay or OK, emcee or MC), and plurals may be based on these (aes or A's, cees or C's, etc.) Letter Letter name Pronunciation A a /eɪ/[3] Some groups of letters, such as pee and bee, or em and en, are easily confused in speech, especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link. Spelling alphabets such as the ICAO spelling alphabet, used by aircraft pilots, police and others, are designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds quite different from any other. Etymology[edit] The names of the letters are for the most part direct descendents, via French, of the Latin (and Etruscan) names. (See Latin alphabet: Origins.) Letter Latin Old French Middle English Modern English A á /aː/ /aː/ /aː/ /eɪ/ The regular phonological developments (in rough chronological order) are: The novel forms are aitch, a regular development of Medieval Latin acca; jay, a new letter presumably vocalized like neighboring kay to avoid confusion with established gee (the other name, jy, was taken from French); vee, a new letter named by analogy with the majority; double-u, a new letter, self-explanatory (the name of Latin V was ū); wye, of obscure origin but with an antecedent in Old French wi; zee, an American leveling of zed by analogy with the majority; and izzard, from the Romance phrase i zed or i zeto "and Z" said when reciting the alphabet. Phonology[edit] Main article: English phonology The letters A, E, I, O, and U are considered vowel letters, since (except when silent) they represent vowels; the remaining letters are considered consonant letters, since when not silent they generally represent consonants. However, Y commonly represents vowels as well as a consonant (e.g., "myth"), as very rarely does W (e.g., "cwm"). Conversely, U sometimes represents a consonant (e.g., "quiz"). Letter frequencies[edit] Main article: Letter frequency The letter most frequently used in English is E. The least frequently used letter is Z. The list below shows the frequency of letter use in English.[12] Letter Frequency A 8.17% See also[edit] Footnotes[edit] 1.^ See also the section on Ligatures Grammar· Categories: English spelling Languages العربية This page was last modified on 5 June 2013 at 05:21.
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Letter frequency - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "The most common letter in the English alphabet is E."
Daily Mail, Wednesday, December 10, 2014 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS Compiled by Charles Legge QUESTION A Iipogram Is a constrained form of writing where a specific letter (often a vowel) is avoided altogether. Have any novels been written this way?
Letter frequency - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "The most common letter in the English alphabet is E."
LOOK AT THE 5FIVES LOOK AT THE 5FIVES LOOK AT THE 5FIVES THE 5FIVES THE 5FIVES LOOK AT THE 5 LOOK AT THE 5 LOOK AT THE 5 THE 5 THE 5
Letter frequency - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
LOOK AT THE 5FIVES LOOK AT THE 5FIVES LOOK AT THE 5FIVES THE 5FIVES THE 5FIVES LOOK AT THE 5 LOOK AT THE 5 LOOK AT THE 5 THE 5 THE 5
Letter Frequencies in the English Language
THE INDEPENDENT MAGAZINE Wednesday 11 September 2013 Mysteries of the snowflake: The curious world of the ice-crystal experts. Inevitably, though, the most common question is, how can Libbrecht be so sure no two snowflakes are ever identical? He likes to tell people that physics has a Zen-like answer, “which is that it depends largely on what you mean by the question. The short answer is that if you consider there’s over a trillion ways you could arrange 15 different books on your bookshelf, then the number of ways of making a complex snowflake is so staggeringly large that, over the history of our planet, I’m confident no two identical flakes have ever fallen. The long answer is more involved – depending on what you mean by ‘alike’ and ‘snowflake’. There could be some extremely small, simple-shaped crystals that looked so alike under a microscope as to be indistinguishable – and if you sifted through enough Arctic snow, where these simple crystals are common, you could probably find a few twins.” "The short answer is that if you consider there’s over a trillion ways you could arrange 15 different books on your bookshelf,"
SORT OUT THE WHEAT FROM THE CHAFF
Letter Frequencies in the English Language
Why is the Letter E the Most Common Letter in the English ... 8 Apr 2018 — The letter makes up 12.702% of the letters in an average text, and is the most commonly-used letter in English. The next most frequently-used ...This is a question I’ve been asking myself ruefully these last few days. The E on my keyboard hasn’t been very coöperative, insisting that I bang it at least a few times for it to make the letter E appear on the screen. This has made me really… appreciate, for wont of a better word, just how often we have to use the letter E.
CODE DE CODE C+O D+E D+E C+O D+E 9+9+9+9+9 C+O D+E D+E C+O D+E CODE DE CODE
SACRED NUMBER THE SECRET QUALITIES OF QUANTITIES Miranda Lundy 2009
SACRED NUMBER THE SECRET QUALITIES OF QUANTITIES Miranda Lundy 2009
THE LIGHT IS RISING NOW RISING IS THE LIGHT
THE BULL OF MINOS Leonard Cottrell 1953 Chapter VII Page 90 THE QUEST CONTINUES "OUT IN THE DARK BLUE SEA THERE LIES A LAND CALLED CRETE, A RICH AND LOVELY LAND, WASHED BY THE WAVES ON EVERY SIDE, DENSELY PEOPLED AND BOASTING NINETY CITIES. . . ONE OF THE NINETY TOWNS IS A GREAT CITY CALLED KNOSSOS, AND THERE FOR NINE YEARS, KING MINOS RULED AND ENJOYED THE FRIENDSHIP OF ALMIGHTY ZEUS SUN 9 9 SUN EARTH 7 7 EARTH MOON 3 3 MOON JUPITER 99 99 JUPITER
Thursday, June 11 2009 Page 37 Web 2.0 - the one millionth English word ALMOST 1,500 years after it was first recorded, the English language has its one millionth word. At 10.22am yesterday Web 2.0 - describing the next generation of internet services entered the dictionary. To be accepted a word must be used at least 25,000 times across national boundaries and outside specialisms. U.S-based Global Language Monitor surveys print publications, online news sites, blogs and social media for useage. Jai Ho!, a Hindi phrase signifying the joy of victory became the 999,999th word thanks to the Oscar-Winning film Slumdog millionaire. At 1,000,001 is Financial Tsunami - a sudden financial restructuring. "JAI HO! A HINDI PHRASE SIGNIFYING THE JOY OF VICTORY BECAME THE 999,999TH WORD..."
LANGUAGE LAND ENGAGE LAND LANGUAGE LETTERS AND NUMBERS AND LETTERS
THE JESUS MYSTERIES Timothy Freke & Peter Gandy 1 999 Page 177 The gospels are actually anonymous works, in which everything, without exception, is written in capital letters, with no headings, chapter or verse divisions, and practically no punctuation or spaces between words.61 They were not even written in the Aramic of the Jews but in Greek.62
THE GOSPELS ARE ACTUALLY ANONYMOUS WORKS, IN WHICH EVERYTHING WITHOUT EXCEPTION, IS WRITTEN IN CAPITAL LETTERS, WITH NO PUNCTUATION OR SPACES BETWEEN WORDS.
GODS PEOPLES GODS GOD SPELLS GOSPELS SPELLS GOD
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262625242322212019181716151413121110987654321 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
The Evolution of Writing, Reading and Printing of the Alphabet History of the Latin Alphabet Egypt and in Canaan (the latter corresponds roughly to present-day Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Israel, a land also known as Phoenicia) during the Middle and Late Bronze Age. However, the script did not become widely used until the rise of what were dubbed new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. The Evolution of Writing, Reading and Printing of the Alphabet History of the Latin Alphabet Latin or Roman script is a series of graphic representative signs (script) based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, and derived from a form of the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, used by the Etruscans. The Latin script is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the standard script of the English language and is frequently referred to simply as ‘the alphabet’ in both spoken and written English. It is a true alphabet (As in, it contains separate letters [not diacritic marks] for both consonants and vowels) which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It also has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan. NOTE: The Semitic alphabet in its earliest form, the Proto-Sinaitic script of Egypt has yet to be fully deciphered. The earliest known alphabetic (or ‘proto-alphabetic’) inscriptions are written in the so-called Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script sporadically attested as being in use across the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt and in Canaan (the latter corresponds roughly to present-day Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Israel, a land also known as Phoenicia) during the Middle and Late Bronze Age. However, the script did not become widely used until the rise of what were dubbed new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. The Phoenician alphabet is a direct continuation of the ‘Proto-Canaanite’ script of the Bronze Age collapse period which overall spanned 3000 BC to 1200 BC, but varied in length between Europe, the Near East and South Asia. The Ahiram epitaph, engraved on the sarcophagus of king Ahiram from about 1200 BC, one of five known Byblian royal inscriptions, shows what is essentially the fully developed Phoenician script. Over time, the phonetic sound values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and others gained, and several writing styles (‘hands’) developed. Two styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were ultimately combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters. Due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. There are few regional variants. The Latin alphabet started out as uppercase serifed (with a slight projection finishing off a stroke of a letter) letters known as roman square capitals. Also known as capitalis monumentalis, inscriptional capitals, elegant capitals and capitalis quadrata, this ancient Roman form of writing, became and still is the basis for modern capital letters. Meanwhile, the lowercase letters evolved through cursive styles (where some characters are written joined together in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster i.e. what the English refer to as longhand). These styles were fundamentally developed in order to adapt the formerly inscribed alphabet to be written with a pen. Down through the ages, many dissimilar stylistic variants of each letter have appeared but remain identified as the same original letter. Following the evolution of the *dab* alphabet from the Western Greek Alphabet through Old Italic alphabet, G developed from C, the letter J developed from a flourished I, V and U split and the ligature of VV became W, the letter thorn was introduced from the runic alphabet but was lost in all languages except Icelandic, and the letter s could be written either as a long s (ſ) inside a word or as a terminal s at the end or after a long s (ß) after the 7th century AD, but the long s was generally abandoned in the 19th century. However, courtesy of classical revival, Roman capitals were reintroduced by humanists making Latin inscriptions easily legible to modern readers while many medieval manuscripts are unreadable to an untrained modern reader, due to unfamiliar letterforms, narrow spacing and abbreviation marks with some exceptions of some marks such as the apostrophe and the exception of Carolingian minuscule letters (lower caps) which were mistaken for Roman. Additionally the phonetic value of the letters has changed from the original and is certainly not constant across the languages adopting the Latin alphabet, for instance comparing English with French. Quite often the orthography fails to fully match the phonetics, resulting in Homophonic heterographs (words written differently but sounding the same) for example in English rough and ruff and also adopting digraphs covering new sounds, such as ‘sh’ for Voiceless post-alveolar fricative in English. Development of Letter case within the Latin Alphabet Letter case (often simply referred to as case) is the distinction between the letters of the alphabet that are written in their larger form known as upper case (however other terms frequently used are uppercase, capital letters, capitals, caps, large letters, or more formally majuscule). In logical contrast the smaller version of letters are known as lower case (other terms regularly in use include lowercase, small letters, along with the more formal minuscule). Both only apply in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that physically distinguish between the upper and lower case employ two parallel sets of letters, where each letter in one set normally has an equivalent in the other set. Fundamentally, the two case variants are alternative presentations of the same letter; they are both assigned the same name as well as pronunciation and have identical values when information is to be sorted in alphabetical order. The terms upper case and lower case maybe be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen (upper-case and lower-case), or the two components merged as a single word (uppercase and lowercase). In fact, these terms originated from what were the common layouts of the shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing. Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate shallow tray or ‘case’ that was located above the case which held the small letters, and since capital letters are taller the name proved easy to remember. Majuscule, is technically any script in which the letters are depicted with very few or short ascenders and descenders, or none at all (for example, the majuscule scripts used in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, or the Book of Kells). By virtue of their visual impact, this then made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase or capital letters. The Codex Vaticanus, author Eusebius was completed between 300 and 325 is considered to be one of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Greek Bible (Old and New Testament), and one of the four great uncial codices. The Codex is named after its place of conservation in the Vatican Library, where it has been kept since at least the 15th century. The Book of Kells (Latin: Codex Cenannensis; Irish: Leabhar Cheanannais is held in Dublin, Trinity College Library in Ireland. Sometimes known as the Book of Columba, it is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin, containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. Minuscule refers to lower-case letters. The word is often spelled miniscule, because of its association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini-. Traditionally this has been regarded as a spelling mistake (since minuscule is derived from the word minus), however it is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as a nonstandard or variant spelling. Nevertheless, Miniscule is still less likely to be used in reference to lower-case letters. Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule or capital letters, spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds. When written quickly with a pen, these tended to result in rounder and much simpler forms. It is from these that the first minuscule writing hands developed, the half-uncials and cursive minuscule, which no longer stayed bound between a pair of lines. These in turn formed the foundations for the Carolingian minuscule script, developed by famous scholar Alcuin of York for use in the court of Charlemagne (742 to 814 AD), which quickly spread across Europe. The advantage of the minuscule over majuscule was supposedly improved, faster readability. In Latin, papyri from Herculaneum dating before 79 AD (when the ancient Roman town was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius) have been found written in old Roman cursive, where the early forms of minuscule letters d’, ‘h’ and ‘r’ for example, can already be recognised. According to papyrologist Knut Kleve, ‘The theory, then, that the lower-case letters have been developed from the fifth century uncials and the ninth century Carolingian minuscules seems to be wrong’. Both majuscule and minuscule letters existed, but the difference between the two variants was initially stylistic rather than orthographic and the writing system was still basically unicameral (of a single legislative body): a given handwritten document could make use of either one style or the other but these were not mixed. European languages did not make the distinction between cases, other than Ancient Greek and Latin until around 1300. The timeline for writing in Western Europe is divisible into four eras: Greek majuscule (9th to 3rd century BC) in contrast to the Greek uncial script (3rd century BC to 12th century AD) and the later Greek minuscule Roman majuscule (7th century BC to 4th century AD) in contrast to the Roman uncial (4th to 8th century AD), Roman Half Uncial, and minuscule Carolingian majuscule (4th to 8th century AD) in contrast to the Carolingian minuscule (around 780 to 12th century). [Carolingian Empire Franks & Lombards]. Gothic majuscule (13th and 14th century), in contrast to the early Gothic (end of 11th to 13th century), Gothic (14th century), and late Gothic (16th century) minuscules. NOTE: Uncial is defined as ‘of or written in a majuscule script with rounded unjoined letters which is found in European manuscripts between the 4th and 8th centuries; from which modern capital letters are derived’. Traditionally, certain letters were rendered differently according to a set of rules. Specifically, those letters that began sentences or nouns were enlarged and often written in a distinct script. There was actually no fixed capitalisation system until the early 18th century. The English language eventually dropped the rule for nouns, while the German language retained it. Similar evolution has taken place in other alphabets. The lower-case script for the Greek alphabet has its origins in the 7th century and only acquired its quadrilinear form in the 8th century. Over time, uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script. The earliest dated Greek lower-case text is found in the Uspenski Gospels (MS 461 a New Testament minuscule manuscript written in Greek) in the year 835. The modern practice of capitalising the first letter of every sentence appears to have been imported (even today the system is rarely used when printing Ancient Greek materials). The Evolution of Word Spacing and Punctuation Modern English, both hand written and printed, uses a space to separate individual words, however not all languages adhere to this practice. In chronological terms spaces were not used to separate words in Latin until roughly 600 to 800 AD, whereas Ancient Hebrew and Arabic did use physical spaces, but partly to compensate for clarity issues arising from the lack of vowels. Traditionally, all CJK languages have had no spaces, and certainly in the main both modern Chinese and Japanese do not; yet conversely modern Korean does use spaces. Meanwhile, Runic texts make use of either interpunct-like (consisting of a vertically centred dot) or colon-style punctuation marks as word separation devices. Taking spacing a stage further, essentially it is only those languages based upon a Latin-derived alphabet (English being one) which have adopted a varied methodology of sentence spacing since the advent of movable printing type in the 15th century. Spacing toward Punctuation What are known as the Semitic languages (Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, and Syriac), especially when written without vowels, were pretty much always recorded with word separation, even in their most ancient form, and indeed continued to be transcribed with this formatting into modern times The earliest alphabetic based writing had no capitalisation, spaces or vowels and few punctuation marks. However, this system only worked effectively if the subject matter was confined to a limited spread of everyday topics (e.g. written records pertaining to business transactions). Although in real historical terms, punctuation was designed as an aid to reading aloud. The oldest known document using punctuation is the Mesha Stele (a 9th century BC inscribed stone, set up around 840 BC by King Mesha of Moab Mesha). Mesha Stele is inscribed with the cautionary tale of how Chemosh, the god of Moab, had been angry with his people and as a result allowed them to be subjugated by Israel, but eventually Chemosh returns and helps the people to restore Moab’s independence and throw off the yoke of Israeli oppression. It is written in the Phoenician alphabet and employs points between the words along with horizontal strokes between the sense sections, as punctuation. The Arrival of Symbolic Punctuation Most texts of the time were still written in scriptura continua, meaning without any separation between words. However, the Greeks began to sporadically use punctuation marks, consisting of vertically arranged dots [usually two (dicolon) or three (tricolon)], in and around the 5th century b.c. as an aid to the oral delivery of texts. Greek playwrights such as Euripides and Aristophanes definitely used symbols to distinguish the ends of phrases in written drama: essentially helping the thespians to know when to pause. Post 200 b.c., the Greeks used the Aristophanes of Byzantium system (named théseis) of a single dot (punctus) placed at varying heights to mark up speeches at rhetorical dividing lines: · hypostigmḗ – a low punctus on the baseline to mark off a komma (unit smaller than a clause [a unit of grammatical organisation next below the sentence in rank and in traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and predicate.]); · stigmḕ mésē – a punctus at midheight to mark off a clause (kōlon); and · stigmḕ teleía – a high punctus to mark off a sentence (periodos). In addition, the Greeks used the paragraphos (or gamma) to mark the beginning of sentences, marginal diples (marks once used in margins to draw attention to something in the text.) to mark quotations, and a koronis (both a textual symbol and a mark over vowel letters in Ancient Greek) to indicate the end of major sections. Circa 1st century b.c., the Romans also occasionally used symbols to indicate pauses, but the Greek théseis, subsequently known by the name distinctiones, prevailed to become a more or less widespread standard from the 1st to the 4th century A.D. Certainly, according to scholarly observer practitioners ranging from Aelius Donatus (Roman grammarian and teacher of rhetoric 1st Century AD) through to Isidore of Seville (Scholar and Archbishop of Seville 7th century AD). Also, during the 1st century BC, texts were sometimes laid out per capitula, where every sentence had its own separate line. Originally diples were used for these demarcations; however by the late period (664 BC until 332 BC) they had often regressed into comma-shaped marks. The Development of Punctuation Punctuation evolved dramatically as copies of the Bible began to be produced in large numbers. Given that it was essential that the holy tome be read aloud, so the copyists began to introduce a range of spoken word marks to help the reader. These included indentation, various punctuation marks (diple, paragraphos, simplex ductus), and an early version of initial capitals (litterae notabiliores). Jerome (tutored by the aforementioned Aelius Donatus) who along with colleagues, made a translation of the Bible into Latin, the Vulgate around 400 AD, employed a formatting system based on the established methodology used for teaching the speeches of Demosthenes and Cicero. Under this layout per cola et commata every sense-unit was indented and given its own line. However, this layout was solely used for biblical manuscripts in a period covering the 5th to 9th centuries and was then abandoned in favour of punctuation. Meanwhile in the 7th and 8th centuries Irish and Anglo-Saxon scribes, whose native languages were not derived from Latin, added further visual cues to render texts more intelligible. Irish scribes introduced the practice of word separation. Likewise, insular scribes (post-Roman Hiberno/Saxon) adopted the distinctiones system while adapting it for minuscule script (to make the signage more prominent) not by employing differing height but rather a variable number of marks mainly aligned horizontally (or sometimes triangularly) to indicate a pause's value: one mark for a minor pause, two for the medium version, and three for a major. Most common were the punctus, a comma-shaped mark, and a 7-shaped mark (comma positura), often used in combination. The same symbols could be used in the margin to mark off quotations. Nevertheless, despite these advances, an alternative system emerged in France during the late 8th century under the Carolingian dynasty. In its original form, this system was used to indicate how the voice should be modulated when chanting the liturgy, but gradually the positurae as it was known, steadily migrated into any text meant to be read aloud, and ultimately to all manuscripts. Positurae first worked itself into England over the latter part of the 10th century AD, most likely during the Benedictine reform movement, but was not adopted as standard practice until after the Norman Conquest. The original positurae were the punctus, punctus elevatus (an inverted latter day semi-colon), punctus versus, and punctus interrogatives (dot with a flourish above as in the modern day question mark), but a fifth symbol, the punctus flexus (very similar to the punctus interrogatives), was added in the 10th century to indicate a pause of a value between the punctus and punctus elevatus. In the late 11th/early 12th century the punctus versus (similar in appearance to a semicolon) faded away and was taken over by the simple punctus (now with two distinct values). The arrival of the late Middle Ages saw the addition of the virgula suspensiva (slash or slash with a midpoint dot) which was often used in conjunction with the punctus for different types of pauses. Direct quotations continued to be marked with marginal diples, as they were in antiquity, but from at least the 12th century scribes also began entering diples (sometimes doubled up) within the physical column of text. Later Developments Leading to Modern Punctutation The volume of printed material becoming available and thus its readership began to increase after the invention of moveable type in Europe in the 1450s. To quote writer and editor, Lynne Truss, ‘The rise of printing in the 14th and 15th centuries meant that a standard system of punctuation was urgently required.’ The introduction of a standard system of punctuation has also been attributed to the Venetian printers Aldus Manutius (Venetian humanist, scholar, educator, who became a printer and publisher when he helped found the Aldine Press in Venice, 1495) and his grandson. They have been credited with popularising the practice of ending sentences with the colon or full stop, inventing the semicolon (although the punctus versus was still visible in the early 12th century), making occasional use of parentheses and creating the modern comma by lowering the virgule. By 1566, Aldus Manutius the Younger was able to declare that the main objective of punctuation was the clarification of syntax. In a 19th-century manual of typography, published by American Printer Thomas MacKellar in 1866, he writes: ‘Shortly after the invention of printing, the necessity of stops or pauses in sentences for the guidance of the reader produced the colon and full point. In process of time, the comma was added, which was then merely a perpendicular line, proportioned to the body of the letter. These three points were the only ones used until the close of the fifteenth century, when Aldo Manuccio gave a better shape to the comma, and added the semicolon; the comma denoting the shortest pause, the semicolon next, then the colon, and the full point terminating the sentence. The marks of interrogation and admiration were introduced many years after.’ By the 19th century, punctuation in the western world had evolved ‘to classify the marks hierarchically, in terms of weight’. Conveying the use of Punctuation by Example Cecil B. Hartley's teaching poem taken from his title The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness, published in 1860 identifies the relative values of punctuation marks: The stop point out, with truth, the time of pause A sentence doth require at ev'ry clause. At ev'ry comma, stop while one you count; At semicolon, two is the amount; A colon doth require the time of three; The period four, as learned men agree. The use of punctuation was not standardised until after the invention of printing. According to the 1885 edition of The American Printer, the importance of punctuation was noted in various sayings by children such as: Charles the First walked and talked Half an hour after his head was cut off. With a semi-colon and a comma added it reads: Charles the First walked and talked; Half an hour after, his head was cut off. Andrew M McTiernan 8/November/2017
I = 9 9 = I
Recurring transposition The Latin alphabet (the alphabet used to transcribe the English language along with many others into the written word) spread, in tandem with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsula to the people populating lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea as the Roman Empire expanded. While the eastern half of this Empire, including Greece, Turkey, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, Latin became widely spoken in the western section, and obviously as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they retained the Latin alphabet which they used as an underlying structure as they adapted their individual tongues. As Western Christianity spread during the Middle Ages, the script was gradually adopted by the peoples of northern Europe who spoke Celtic languages(displacing the Ogham alphabet) or Germanic languages (displacing earlier Runic alphabets), Baltic languages, as well as by the speakers of several Uralic languages, most notably Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian. The Latin alphabet also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, as those who spoke them embraced Roman Catholicism. The transposition of letters to number is in reality a simple substitution cipher, but translation of English language words into number using this template results in many words becoming powerful zeitgeist representative patterns. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Resolved down to single digits, there are 3 Letters with the numeric value of 1 = A, J & S 3 Letters with the numeric value of 2 = B, K & T 3 Letters with the numeric value of 3 = C, L & U 3 Letters with the numeric value of 4 = D, M & V 3 Letters with the numeric value of 5 = E, N & W 3 Letters with the numeric value of 6 = F, O & X 3 Letters with the numeric value of 7 = G, P & Y 3 Letters with the numeric value of 8 = H, Q & Z 2 Letters with the numeric value of 9 = I & R 9 finds itself powerful and frequent recurrence in capitalism originated patterns as 99, owing to it desirability as a wheedling technique to dupe humankind into materialism by making a purchase seem cheaper and therefore more attractive. Working in number patterns can be far more demonstrative in terms of questions that determine say the frequency of recurrence of for instance single digit numbers 1 to 9, that have been evolved from a word made up from the alphabet above. For instance, of we examine the question in how many ways can 9 books be arranged on a shelf? Assuming that all the books are distinct from one another and only they occupy the shelf. There are: ….9 options in which to put the first book in place. ….8 options for placement of the second book after putting the first book in place. ….7 options for placement of the third book after putting the second book in place. ….6 options for placement of the fourth book after putting the third book in place. ….3 options for placement of the seventh book after putting the sixth book in place. ….2 options for placement of the eighth book after putting the seventh book in place. ….1 option for placement of the ninth book after putting the eighth book in place. Multiply all the different number of ways together and we step deeper into mathematics and encounter what is known as nine factorial or 9!. 9! = 362880 What are Factorials? Fundamentally they are very simple things. They're really just products, indicated by an exclamation mark. For instance, "four factorial" is written as "4!" and actually means the result of multiplying of all numbers that make up that number 1×2×3×4 = 24. In general, n! ("enn factorial") means the product of all the whole numbers from 1 to n; that is, n! = 1×2×3×...×n. Therefore 5! [5 being what we refer to as the number of balance] = 1x2x3x4x5 = 120
Thus returning to our power number 9 we have 9! = 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8x9 = 362880 Well, what are the practical applications of factorial numbers? Well there is an immediately obvious capitalistic application, and in the interests of honesty and glasnost, despite the truth that gambling is a desperately debilitating spinoff sickness of capitalism, factorials are a system of value in any card game. For if you wish to calculate (or even estimate) the probability of favourable outcomes in any other area beside the number of books sequences on a shelf, you simply have to have a working knowledge of factorials. Besides that 9 finds itself to be a powerful and frequent recurrence in capitalism originated patterns as 99, owing to it desirability as a wheedling technique to dupe humankind into an excess of materialism by making a purchase seem cheaper and therefore more attractive. The probability of purchase of an item that is priced at 99.99 whatever the currency unit is far higher. The power of nine is very evident across the spectrum of power both good and bad That is perhaps unwanted digression in terms of the pragmatic use of factorial numbers for good. For Combinatorics is much more than "arranging number of items [like the books]". The asymptotic behaviour of factorial is important (here again computer scientists would be drooling). The tools of calculus are powerful ask any computer scientist If you have nn objects and you want to pick kk of them, the number of possible choice is a number called (nk)(nk)which is equal to n!k!(n-k)!n!k!(n-k)!. Then there’s Benford’s law. Reputedly the phenomenon that would later be called Benfords law was discovered and first subjectively published by an astronomer Simon Newcomb (1835-1909). The application of Benford's Law in everyday-life numbers has been advanced by showing that it arises naturally when one considers mixtures of uniform distributions. Benford's law, also called the first-digit law, is an observation about the frequency distribution of leading digits in many real-life sets of numerical data. The law states that in many naturally occurring collections of numbers, the leading significant digit is likely to be small. It is a law of digit bias. Frank Benford was a physicist at General Electric research laboratories who had begun to analyse the laws revealed by Simon Newcomb. Newcomb had noticed that the early pages of a book of logarithms were well thumbed by comparison with the rest of the tome. His conclusion was that numbers that begin with lower digits occur more frequently than those starting with higher digits. Therefore the digit 1 at the beginning of a number would occur more frequently than the digit 2, thus 2 would occur more frequently than the digit 3, ergo 3 would occur more frequently than the digit 4 and so on. Therefore, the least frequently occurring number would begin with the digit 9, perhaps giving an indication of its special powers and why it is revered. He analysed 20,000 lists of everything ranging from the populations of different cities or countries through American baseball league results to electricity bills on the Solomon Islands. He concluded that the highest occurrence as the first digit of any given number was 1. Borrowing from calculus Benford the formulated a series of equations that calculated the anticipated frequency of single digit numbers as the initial digit of any given number, which became the foundation stone of Benford’s Law. In general is has been noted that a series of numerical records follow Benford’s Law when they represent the magnitude of events, such as population of cities, flows of water in rivers or sizes of celestial bodies. And do not have pre-established maximum and minimum. Which, perhaps is why transposition of English alphabet words and sentences into number yield such rich intellectual pickings in terms of determining and tracking the course and gravity of events be they current or historic, scientific, cultural or sociological.
THE INDEPENDENT MAGAZINE Wednesday 11 September 2013 Mysteries of the snowflake: The curious world of the ice-crystal experts. Inevitably, though, the most common question is, how can Libbrecht be so sure no two snowflakes are ever identical? He likes to tell people that physics has a Zen-like answer, “which is that it depends largely on what you mean by the question. The short answer is that if you consider there’s over a trillion ways you could arrange 15 different books on your bookshelf, then the number of ways of making a complex snowflake is so staggeringly large that, over the history of our planet, I’m confident no two identical flakes have ever fallen. The long answer is more involved – depending on what you mean by ‘alike’ and ‘snowflake’. There could be some extremely small, simple-shaped crystals that looked so alike under a microscope as to be indistinguishable – and if you sifted through enough Arctic snow, where these simple crystals are common, you could probably find a few twins.” "The short answer is that if you consider there’s over a trillion ways you could arrange 15 different books on your bookshelf,"
contradiction in terms - Wiktionary https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contradiction_in_terms Noun. contradiction in terms (plural contradictions in terms) A phrase or expression in which the component words contradict one another, often unintentionally, or are claimed to do so when seen from a particular point of view. "A miniature giant" is a contradiction in terms.
a contradiction in terms Meaning in the Cambridge Learner's Dictionary https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/learner-english/a-contradiction-in-terms Meaning of “a contradiction in terms” - Learner's Dictionary. a contradiction in terms. a phrase that is confusing because it contains words that seem to have opposite meanings: An honest politician - isn't that a contradiction in terms?
Contradiction in terms definition and meaning | Collins English ... https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/contradiction-in-terms a term, phrase, or phenomenon containing self-contradictory parts. A public service run for profit – a contradiction in terms if there ever was one. The judge is also the prosecutor. It is a contradiction in terms. This article is about the contradiction in terms. For the punk band, see Oxymoron (band). For the album by rapper Schoolboy Q, see Oxymoron (album).
contradiction in terms - Wiktionary https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contradiction_in_terms Noun. contradiction in terms (plural contradictions in terms) A phrase or expression in which the component words contradict one another, often unintentionally, or are claimed to do so when seen from a particular point of view. "A miniature giant" is a contradiction in terms. An oxymoron (usual plural oxymorons, more rarely oxymora) is a rhetorical device that uses an ostensible self-contradiction to illustrate a rhetorical point or to reveal a paradox.[1][2] A more general meaning of "contradiction in terms" (not necessarily for rhetoric effect) is recorded by the OED for 1902.[3] The term is first recorded as latinized Greek oxymorum, in Maurus Servius Honoratus (c. AD 400);[4] it is derived from the Greek ???? oksús "sharp, keen, pointed"[5] and µ???? moros "dull, stupid, foolish";[6] as it were, "sharp-dull", "keenly stupid", or "pointedly foolish".[7] The word oxymoron is autological, i.e. it is itself an example of an oxymoron. The Greek compound word ???µ???? oksýmoron, which would correspond to the Latin formation, does not seem to appear in any known Ancient Greek works prior to the formation of the Latin term.[8] The most common form of oxymoron involves an adjective–noun combination of two words, but they can also be devised in the meaning of sentences or phrases. One classic example of the use of oxymorons in English literature can be found in this example from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, where Romeo strings together thirteen in a row: O brawling love! O loving hate! Shakespeare heaps up many more oxymorons in Romeo and Juliet in particular ("Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical! Dove-feather'd raven! wolvish-ravening lamb! Despised substance of divinest show!" etc.) and uses them in other plays, e.g. "I must be cruel only to be kind" (Hamlet), "fearful bravery" (Julius Caesar), "good mischief" (The Tempest), and in his sonnets, e.g. "tender churl", "gentle thief". Other examples from English-language literature include: "hateful good" (Chaucer, translating odibile bonum)[12] "proud humility" (Spenser),[13] "darkness visible" (Milton), "beggarly riches" (John Donne),[14] "damn with faint praise" (Pope),[15] "expressive silence" (Thomson, echoing Cicero's Latin: cum tacent clamant, lit. 'when they are silent, they cry out'), "melancholy merriment" (Byron), "faith unfaithful", "falsely true" (Tennyson),[16] "conventionally unconventional", "tortuous spontaneity" (Henry James)[17] "delighted sorrow", "loyal treachery", "scalding coolness" (Hemingway).[18] In literary contexts, the author does not usually signal the use of an oxymoron, but in rhetorical usage, it has become common practice to advertise the use of an oxymoron explicitly to clarify the argument, as in: J. R. R. Tolkien interpreted his own surname as derived from the Low German equivalent of dull-keen (High German toll-kühn) which would be a literal equivalent of Greek oxymoron.[19]
From: Andy McTiernan Rate owd luvv latest version, I have in the back of my mind a side conversation we had about the arrival of spacing between words, an issue which in essence falls under the general heading of 'Punctuation, I have not included this. But if you feel 'tis needed then I'll research and add in. Anyway, see what tha thinks thus far. Andyroo History of the Latin Alphabet Latin or Roman script is a series of graphic representative signs (script) based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, and derived from a form of the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, used by the Etruscans. The Latin script is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the standard script of the English language and is frequently referred to simply as ‘the alphabet’ in both spoken and written English. It is a true alphabet (As in, it contains separate letters [not diacritic marks] for both consonants and vowels) which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It also has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan. NOTE: The Semitic alphabet in its earliest form, the Proto-Sinaitic script of Egypt has yet to be fully deciphered. The earliest known alphabetic (or ‘proto-alphabetic’) inscriptions are written in the so-called Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script sporadically attested as being in use across the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt and in Canaan (the latter corresponds roughly to present-day Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Israel, a land also known as Phoenicia) during the Middle and Late Bronze Age. However, the script did not become widely used until the rise of what were dubbed new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. The Phoenician alphabet is a direct continuation of the "Proto-Canaanite" script of the Bronze Age collapse period spanned 3000 to 1200BC but varied in length between Europe, Near East and South Asia. The so-called Ahiram epitaph, engraved on the sarcophagus of king Ahiram from about 1200 BC, one of five known Byblian royal inscriptions, shows what is essentially the fully developed Phoenician script. Over time, the phonetic sound values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and others gained, and several writing styles (‘hands’) developed. Two styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were ultimately combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters. Due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. There are few regional variants. The Latin alphabet started out as uppercase serifed (with a slight projection finishing off a stroke of a letter) letters known as roman square capitals. Also known as capitalis monumentalis, inscriptional capitals, elegant capitals and capitalis quadrata, this ancient Roman form of writing, became and still is the basis for modern capital letters. Meanwhile, the lowercase letters evolved through cursive styles (where some characters are written joined together in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster i.e. what the English refer to as longhand). These styles were fundamentally developed in order to adapt the formerly inscribed alphabet to be written with a pen. Down through the ages, many dissimilar stylistic variants of each letter have appeared but remain identified as the same original letter. Following the evolution of the *dab* alphabet from the Western Greek Alphabet through Old Italic alphabet, G developed from C, the letter J developed from a flourished I, V and U split and the ligature of VV became W, the letter thorn was introduced from the runic alphabet but was lost in all languages except Icelandic, and the letter s could be written either as a long s (?) inside a word or as a terminal s at the end or after a long s (ß) after the 7th century AD, but the long s was generally abandoned in the 19th century. However, courtesy of classical revival, Roman capitals were reintroduced by humanists making Latin inscriptions easily legible to modern readers while many medieval manuscripts are unreadable to an untrained modern reader, due to unfamiliar letterforms, narrow spacing and abbreviation marks with some exceptions of some marks such as the apostrophe and the exception of Carolingian minuscule letters (lower caps) which were mistaken for Roman. Additionally the phonetic value of the letters has changed from the original and is certainly not constant across the languages adopting the Latin alphabet, for instance comparing English with French. Quite often the orthography fails to fully match the phonetics, resulting in Homophonic heterographs (words written differently but sounding the same) for example in English rough and ruff and also adopting digraphs covering new sounds, such as ‘sh’ for Voiceless post-alveolar fricative in English.
Development of Letter case within the Latin Alphabet Letter case (often simply referred to as case) is the distinction between the letters of the alphabet that are written in their larger form known as upper case (however other terms frequently used are uppercase, capital letters, capitals, caps, large letters, or more formally majuscule). In logical contrast the smaller version of letters are known as lower case (other terms regularly in use include lowercase, small letters, along with the more formal minuscule). Both only apply in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that physically distinguish between the upper and lower case employ two parallel sets of letters, where each letter in one set normally has an equivalent in the other set. Fundamentally, the two case variants are alternative presentations of the same letter; they are both assigned the same name as well as pronunciation and have identical values when information is to be sorted in alphabetical order. The terms upper case and lower case maybe be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen (upper-case and lower-case), or the two components merged as a single word (uppercase and lowercase). In fact, these terms originated from what were the common layouts of the shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing. Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate shallow tray or ‘case’ that was located above the case which held the small letters, and since capital letters are taller the name proved easy to remember. Majuscule, is technically any script in which the letters are depicted with very few or short ascenders and descenders, or none at all (for example, the majuscule scripts used in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, or the Book of Kells). By virtue of their visual impact, this then made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase or capital letters. The Codex Vaticanus, author Eusebius completed between 300 and 325 is considered to be one of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Greek Bible (Old and New Testament), and one of the four great uncial codices. The Codex is named after its place of conservation in the Vatican Library, where it has been kept since at least the 15th century. The Book of Kells (Latin: Codex Cenannensis; Irish: Leabhar Cheanannais is held in Dublin, Trinity College Library. Sometimes known as the Book of Columba, it is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin, containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. Minuscule refers to lower-case letters. The word is often spelled miniscule, because of its association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini-. Traditionally this has been regarded as a spelling mistake (since minuscule is derived from the word minus), however it is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as a nonstandard or variant spelling. Nevertheless, Miniscule is still less likely to be used in reference to lower-case letters. Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule or capital letters, spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds. When written quickly with a pen, these tended to result in rounder and much simpler forms. It is from these that the first minuscule writing hands developed, the half-uncials and cursive minuscule, which no longer stayed bound between a pair of lines. These in turn formed the foundations for the Carolingian minuscule script, developed by famous scholar Alcuin of York for use in the court of Charlemagne (742 to 814 AD), which quickly spread across Europe. The advantage of the minuscule over majuscule was supposedly improved, faster readability. In Latin, papyri from Herculaneum dating before 79 AD (when the ancient Roman town was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius) have been found written in old Roman cursive, where the early forms of minuscule letters d’, ‘h’ and ‘r’ for example, can already be recognised. According to papyrologist Knut Kleve, ‘The theory, then, that the lower-case letters have been developed from the fifth century uncials and the ninth century Carolingian minuscules seems to be wrong’. Both majuscule and minuscule letters existed, but the difference between the two variants was initially stylistic rather than orthographic and the writing system was still basically unicameral (of a single legislative body): a given handwritten document could make use of either one style or the other but these were not mixed. European languages did not make the distinction between cases, other than Ancient Greek and Latin until around 1300. The timeline for writing in Western Europe is divisible into four eras: · Greek majuscule (9th to 3rd century BC) in contrast to the Greek uncial script (3rd century BC to 12th century AD) and the later Greek minuscule · Roman majuscule (7th century BC to 4th century AD) in contrast to the Roman uncial (4th to 8th century AD), Roman Half Uncial, and minuscule · Carolingian majuscule (4th to 8th century AD) in contrast to the Carolingian minuscule (around 780 to 12th century). [Carolingian Empire Franks & Lombards]. · Gothic majuscule (13th and 14th century), in contrast to the early Gothic (end of 11th to 13th century), Gothic (14th century), and late Gothic (16th century) minuscules. NOTE: Uncial is defined as ‘of or written in a majuscule script with rounded unjoined letters which is found in European manuscripts between the 4th and 8th centuries; from which modern capital letters are derived’. Traditionally, certain letters were rendered differently according to a set of rules. Specifically, those letters that began sentences or nouns were enlarged and often written in a distinct script. There was actually no fixed capitalisation system until the early 18th century. The English language eventually dropped the rule for nouns, while the German language retained it. Similar evolution has taken place in other alphabets. The lower-case script for the Greek alphabet has its origins in the 7th century and only acquired its quadrilinear form in the 8th century. Over time, uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script. The earliest dated Greek lower-case text is found in the Uspenski Gospels (MS 461 a New Testament minuscule manuscript written in Greek) in the year 835. The modern practice of capitalising the first letter of every sentence appears to have been imported (even today the system is rarely used when printing Ancient Greek materials).
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